Nonheme iron absorption

What acts on it

1. CGA inhibited meal iron absorption, less strongly than the galloyl compounds tested.

   Chlorogenic acid / 5-O-caffeoylquinic acid → Nonheme iron absorption source_derived_draftungraded
   Experimental context and source evidence

   evidence_span

   {"source_cache": "artifacts/chlorogenic_acid-research/2598894.abstract.txt", "locator": "Primary indexed abstract; zero-based, end-exclusive Unicode character offsets", "file_sha256": "dd211fea03837718abf36655d15cbb771700aeeb8d4f2086b90537561ee0b103", "start_char": 0, "end_char": 2146, "text_sha256": "dd211fea03837718abf36655d15cbb771700aeeb8d4f2086b90537561ee0b103"}

   experimental_model

   Human extrinsic-tag meal iron-absorption experiments

   exposure

   Meals with chemically distinct phenolic compounds; CGA dose not specified in indexed abstract

   limitations

   The measured outcome is meal absorption, not systemic chelation or loss of cellular minerals. Effects of galloyl compounds, catechin and CGA were not interchangeable.

   nutrient_topic

   Chlorogenic acid research collection; topical membership is not evidence of a direct dietary effect. · Chlorogenic acid / 5-O-caffeoylquinic acid

   organism

   Human

   plain_language

   This interaction can reduce iron entering from a meal; it does not show iron being stripped from tissues.

   primary_references

   [chlorogenic_acid-p2598894] Iron absorption and phenolic compounds: importance of different phenolic structures. (1989). https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/2598894/

   tissue_or_cell_type

   Gastrointestinal nonheme-iron absorption

   Chlorogenic acid: metabolism, signaling and nutrient connections (2026-09-17) · lines 763–774

   AI-assisted literature curation; primary study URLs and scope retained in the document and extraction. Not publisher full text. · supports · Human extrinsic-tag meal iron-absorption experiments · source_derived_draft · unverified_draft

   ### chlorogenic_acid-iron-absorption CGA inhibited meal iron absorption, less strongly than the galloyl compounds tested. Condition category: normal nutrient_topic: Chlorogenic acid research collection; topical membership is not evidence of a direct dietary effect. plain_language: This interaction can reduce iron entering from a meal; it does not show iron being stripped from tissues. organism: Human tissue_or_cell_type: Gastrointestinal nonheme-iron absorption experimental_model: Human extrinsic-tag meal iron-absorption experiments limitations: The measured outcome is meal absorption, not systemic chelation or loss of cellular minerals. Effects of galloyl compounds, catechin and CGA were not interchangeable. exposure: Meals with chemically distinct phenolic compounds; CGA dose not specified in indexed abstract evidence_span: {"source_cache": "artifacts/chlorogenic_acid-research/2598894.abstract.txt", "locator": "Primary indexed abstract; zero-based, end-exclusive Unicode character offsets", "file_sha256": "dd211fea03837718abf36655d15cbb771700aeeb8d4f2086b90537561ee0b103", "start_char": 0, "end_char": 2146, "text_sha256": "dd211fea03837718abf36655d15cbb771700aeeb8d4f2086b90537561ee0b103"} [chlorogenic_acid-p2598894] Iron absorption and phenolic compounds: importance of different phenolic structures. (1989). https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/2598894/

   Complete structured claim and evidence

2. Added calcium reduced nonheme-iron absorption in the studied meals.

   Calcium → Nonheme iron absorption source_derived_draftungraded
   Experimental context and source evidence

   experimental_model

   Human isotope meal experiments.

   limitations

   Meal processing/phytate and direct effects both occurred; no specific molecular transporter was identified and long-term iron deficiency was not demonstrated.

   nutrient_topic

   Calcium research collection; topical membership is not evidence of a direct dietary effect. · Calcium

   organism

   Homo sapiens

   plain_language

   Calcium can reduce iron absorbed from a particular meal.

   primary_references

   [cal-clin-hallberg1991] Calcium: effect of different amounts on nonheme- and heme-iron absorption in humans (1991). https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1984335/ DOI: 10.1093/ajcn/53.1.112

   tissue_or_cell_type

   Human clinical or absorption endpoint

   Calcium: mechanism-first literature curation (2026-09-17) · lines 1412–1421

   AI-assisted literature curation; primary study URLs and scope retained in the document and extraction. Not publisher full text. · supports · Human isotope meal experiments. · source_derived_draft · unverified_draft

   ### cal-meal-nonheme-iron Added calcium reduced nonheme-iron absorption in the studied meals. Condition category: normal nutrient_topic: Calcium research collection; topical membership is not evidence of a direct dietary effect. plain_language: Calcium can reduce iron absorbed from a particular meal. organism: Homo sapiens tissue_or_cell_type: Human clinical or absorption endpoint experimental_model: Human isotope meal experiments. limitations: Meal processing/phytate and direct effects both occurred; no specific molecular transporter was identified and long-term iron deficiency was not demonstrated. [cal-clin-hallberg1991] Calcium: effect of different amounts on nonheme- and heme-iron absorption in humans (1991). https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1984335/ DOI: 10.1093/ajcn/53.1.112

   Complete structured claim and evidence

3. Stable-isotope iron absorption varied widely within and between Gambian participants and showed no measurable change after riboflavin.

   Riboflavin (vitamin B2) → Nonheme iron absorption source_derived_draftungraded
   Experimental context and source evidence

   availability_state

   nutrient_deficiency Imported condition classification; unverified.

   cross_nutrient

   Iron-use improvement is distinct from intestinal absorption.

   experimental_model

   Controlled supplementation study in riboflavin-deficient Gambian men with hemoglobin below 11.5 g/dL; stable-isotope iron absorption.

   exposure

   Oral riboflavin versus no riboflavin; 3.38 mg 58Fe test dose before and after intervention; treatment dose not inferred from accessed abstract.

   limitations

   Measurement variability and study size limit exclusion of smaller effects; rat intestinal findings need separate model labels.

   nutrient_topic

   Riboflavin research collection; topical membership is not evidence of a direct dietary effect. · Riboflavin (vitamin B2)

   organism

   Homo sapiens

   plain_language

   This human study does not support a blanket claim that B2 always raises iron absorption.

   primary_references

   [b2-fairweather1992] Riboflavin deficiency and iron absorption in adult Gambian men (1992). https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1590670/ DOI: 10.1159/000177696

   tissue_or_cell_type

   Human clinical setting

   trigger_kind

   nutrient_deficiency Imported condition classification; unverified.

   Riboflavin: mechanisms, deficiency and nutrient interactions (2026-09-17) · lines 1591–1602

   AI-assisted literature curation; primary study URLs and scope retained in the document and extraction. Not publisher full text. · supports · Controlled supplementation study in riboflavin-deficient Gambian men with hemoglobin below 11.5 g/dL; stable-isotope iron absorption. · source_derived_draft · unverified_draft

   ### b2-gambia-iron-absorption Stable-isotope iron absorption varied widely within and between Gambian participants and showed no measurable change after riboflavin. Condition category: nutrient_deficiency nutrient_topic: Riboflavin research collection; topical membership is not evidence of a direct dietary effect. plain_language: This human study does not support a blanket claim that B2 always raises iron absorption. organism: Homo sapiens tissue_or_cell_type: Human clinical setting experimental_model: Controlled supplementation study in riboflavin-deficient Gambian men with hemoglobin below 11.5 g/dL; stable-isotope iron absorption. limitations: Measurement variability and study size limit exclusion of smaller effects; rat intestinal findings need separate model labels. exposure: Oral riboflavin versus no riboflavin; 3.38 mg 58Fe test dose before and after intervention; treatment dose not inferred from accessed abstract. cross_nutrient: Iron-use improvement is distinct from intestinal absorption. [b2-fairweather1992] Riboflavin deficiency and iron absorption in adult Gambian men (1992). https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1590670/ DOI: 10.1159/000177696

   Complete structured claim and evidence

4. Riboflavin-deficient rats transferred less intragastrically administered 59Fe to plasma than age- or weight-matched controls.

   Riboflavin (vitamin B2) → Nonheme iron absorption source_derived_draftungraded
   Experimental context and source evidence

   availability_state

   nutrient_deficiency Imported condition classification; unverified.

   cross_nutrient

   B2 status changed systemic appearance of administered iron.

   evidence_location

   Abstract

   experimental_model

   Dietary riboflavin-deficient male rats versus age-/weight-matched controls; intragastric 59Fe and mucosal brush-border vesicles.

   exposure

   Dietary riboflavin deficiency plus intragastric 59Fe

   limitations

   Rat tracer experiment; does not establish an identical human absorption response.

   nutrient_topic

   Riboflavin research collection; topical membership is not evidence of a direct dietary effect. · Riboflavin (vitamin B2)

   organism

   Rattus norvegicus

   plain_language

   Less of the administered iron reached the blood.

   primary_references

   [butler1993] Comparison of changes in the uptake and mucosal processing of iron in riboflavin-deficient rats. (1993). https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8358336/

   tissue_or_cell_type

   Intestine and plasma

   trigger_kind

   nutrient_deficiency Imported condition classification; unverified.

   Riboflavin: mechanisms, deficiency and nutrient interactions (2026-09-17) · lines 1416–1428

   AI-assisted literature curation; primary study URLs and scope retained in the document and extraction. Not publisher full text. · supports · Dietary riboflavin-deficient male rats versus age-/weight-matched controls; intragastric 59Fe and mucosal brush-border vesicles. · source_derived_draft · unverified_draft

   ### b2-rat-enteral-iron-transfer Riboflavin-deficient rats transferred less intragastrically administered 59Fe to plasma than age- or weight-matched controls. Condition category: nutrient_deficiency nutrient_topic: Riboflavin research collection; topical membership is not evidence of a direct dietary effect. plain_language: Less of the administered iron reached the blood. organism: Rattus norvegicus tissue_or_cell_type: Intestine and plasma experimental_model: Dietary riboflavin-deficient male rats versus age-/weight-matched controls; intragastric 59Fe and mucosal brush-border vesicles. limitations: Rat tracer experiment; does not establish an identical human absorption response. exposure: Dietary riboflavin deficiency plus intragastric 59Fe cross_nutrient: B2 status changed systemic appearance of administered iron. evidence_location: Abstract [butler1993] Comparison of changes in the uptake and mucosal processing of iron in riboflavin-deficient rats. (1993). https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8358336/

   Complete structured claim and evidence

5. Brush-border membrane vesicles from riboflavin-deficient rats took up less iron than identically prepared control vesicles.

   Riboflavin (vitamin B2) → Nonheme iron absorption source_derived_draftungraded
   Experimental context and source evidence

   availability_state

   nutrient_deficiency Imported condition classification; unverified.

   cross_nutrient

   B2 deficiency impairs an iron-uptake process in this rat model.

   evidence_location

   Abstract

   experimental_model

   Dietary riboflavin-deficient male rats versus age-/weight-matched controls; intragastric 59Fe and mucosal brush-border vesicles.

   exposure

   Dietary riboflavin deficiency

   limitations

   No specific transporter or ferrireductase was identified; the result must not be assigned to DMT1, DCYTB or ferritin release without evidence.

   nutrient_topic

   Riboflavin research collection; topical membership is not evidence of a direct dietary effect. · Riboflavin (vitamin B2)

   organism

   Rattus norvegicus

   plain_language

   The deficiency affected iron entry at the intestinal surface.

   primary_references

   [butler1993] Comparison of changes in the uptake and mucosal processing of iron in riboflavin-deficient rats. (1993). https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8358336/

   tissue_or_cell_type

   Intestinal brush-border membrane vesicles

   trigger_kind

   nutrient_deficiency Imported condition classification; unverified.

   Riboflavin: mechanisms, deficiency and nutrient interactions (2026-09-17) · lines 1402–1414

   AI-assisted literature curation; primary study URLs and scope retained in the document and extraction. Not publisher full text. · supports · Dietary riboflavin-deficient male rats versus age-/weight-matched controls; intragastric 59Fe and mucosal brush-border vesicles. · source_derived_draft · unverified_draft

   ### b2-rat-iron-brush-border-uptake Brush-border membrane vesicles from riboflavin-deficient rats took up less iron than identically prepared control vesicles. Condition category: nutrient_deficiency nutrient_topic: Riboflavin research collection; topical membership is not evidence of a direct dietary effect. plain_language: The deficiency affected iron entry at the intestinal surface. organism: Rattus norvegicus tissue_or_cell_type: Intestinal brush-border membrane vesicles experimental_model: Dietary riboflavin-deficient male rats versus age-/weight-matched controls; intragastric 59Fe and mucosal brush-border vesicles. limitations: No specific transporter or ferrireductase was identified; the result must not be assigned to DMT1, DCYTB or ferritin release without evidence. exposure: Dietary riboflavin deficiency cross_nutrient: B2 deficiency impairs an iron-uptake process in this rat model. evidence_location: Abstract [butler1993] Comparison of changes in the uptake and mucosal processing of iron in riboflavin-deficient rats. (1993). https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8358336/

   Complete structured claim and evidence

6. RIBOFEM found no change in dietary iron intake or measured iron absorption during the riboflavin intervention.

   Riboflavin (vitamin B2) → Nonheme iron absorption source_derived_draftungraded
   Experimental context and source evidence

   availability_state

   nutrient_deficiency Imported condition classification; unverified.

   cross_nutrient

   Iron absorption and iron use remain separate entities.

   experimental_model

   RIBOFEM: 123 UK women aged 19-25 randomized with EGRAC >1.40; 119 completed, 117 analyzed after two exclusions; iron-absorption subset 34.

   exposure

   Placebo, 2 or 4 mg/day riboflavin for eight weeks; historical trial regimens.

   limitations

   Small absorption subgroup; no measured change is not proof of identical absorption in all settings. Actual downstream causal step remains unresolved.

   nutrient_topic

   Riboflavin research collection; topical membership is not evidence of a direct dietary effect. · Riboflavin (vitamin B2)

   organism

   Homo sapiens

   plain_language

   The blood response could not simply be explained by absorbing more iron in the measured subgroup.

   primary_references

   [b2-powers2011] Correcting a marginal riboflavin deficiency improves hematologic status in young women in the United Kingdom (RIBOFEM) (2011). https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21525198/ DOI: 10.3945/ajcn.110.008409

   tissue_or_cell_type

   Human clinical setting

   trigger_kind

   nutrient_deficiency Imported condition classification; unverified.

   Riboflavin: mechanisms, deficiency and nutrient interactions (2026-09-17) · lines 1565–1576

   AI-assisted literature curation; primary study URLs and scope retained in the document and extraction. Not publisher full text. · supports · RIBOFEM: 123 UK women aged 19-25 randomized with EGRAC >1.40; 119 completed, 117 analyzed after two exclusions; iron-absorption subset 34. · source_derived_draft · unverified_draft

   ### b2-ribofem-absorption RIBOFEM found no change in dietary iron intake or measured iron absorption during the riboflavin intervention. Condition category: nutrient_deficiency nutrient_topic: Riboflavin research collection; topical membership is not evidence of a direct dietary effect. plain_language: The blood response could not simply be explained by absorbing more iron in the measured subgroup. organism: Homo sapiens tissue_or_cell_type: Human clinical setting experimental_model: RIBOFEM: 123 UK women aged 19-25 randomized with EGRAC >1.40; 119 completed, 117 analyzed after two exclusions; iron-absorption subset 34. limitations: Small absorption subgroup; no measured change is not proof of identical absorption in all settings. Actual downstream causal step remains unresolved. exposure: Placebo, 2 or 4 mg/day riboflavin for eight weeks; historical trial regimens. cross_nutrient: Iron absorption and iron use remain separate entities. [b2-powers2011] Correcting a marginal riboflavin deficiency improves hematologic status in young women in the United Kingdom (RIBOFEM) (2011). https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21525198/ DOI: 10.3945/ajcn.110.008409

   Complete structured claim and evidence

7. Added ascorbic acid significantly counteracted the inhibition of radiolabeled nonheme iron absorption caused by sodium phytate in wheat-roll meals.

   L-Ascorbic acid → Nonheme iron absorption source_derived_draftungraded
   Experimental context and source evidence

   cross_nutrient

   Meal composition modifies the vitamin C/iron interaction.

   experimental_model

   Human alternate-day paired radiolabeled wheat-roll experiments.

   exposure

   Seven sodium phytate levels spanning 2–250 mg expressed as phytate phosphorus, with and without ascorbic acid; 55Fe/59Fe labels. Exact C dose and participant count are not extracted from the abstract.

   limitations

   Single-meal tracer result; does not prove full cancellation of inhibition or long-term correction of anemia.

   nutrient_topic

   Vitamin C research collection; topical membership is not evidence of a direct dietary effect. · Vitamin C

   organism

   Homo sapiens

   plain_language

   Vitamin C helped offset an iron-absorption inhibitor in the tested meals.

   primary_references

   [c-hallberg1989] Iron absorption in man: ascorbic acid and dose-dependent inhibition by phytate (1989). https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/2911999/ DOI: 10.1093/ajcn/49.1.140

   tissue_or_cell_type

   Human blood or whole-person endpoints

   Vitamin C: mechanisms, deficiency and nutrient interactions (2026-09-17) · lines 1580–1591

   AI-assisted literature curation; primary study URLs and scope retained in the document and extraction. Not publisher full text. · supports · Human alternate-day paired radiolabeled wheat-roll experiments. · source_derived_draft · unverified_draft

   ### c-phytate-iron-inhibition-counteraction Added ascorbic acid significantly counteracted the inhibition of radiolabeled nonheme iron absorption caused by sodium phytate in wheat-roll meals. Condition category: normal nutrient_topic: Vitamin C research collection; topical membership is not evidence of a direct dietary effect. plain_language: Vitamin C helped offset an iron-absorption inhibitor in the tested meals. organism: Homo sapiens tissue_or_cell_type: Human blood or whole-person endpoints experimental_model: Human alternate-day paired radiolabeled wheat-roll experiments. limitations: Single-meal tracer result; does not prove full cancellation of inhibition or long-term correction of anemia. exposure: Seven sodium phytate levels spanning 2–250 mg expressed as phytate phosphorus, with and without ascorbic acid; 55Fe/59Fe labels. Exact C dose and participant count are not extracted from the abstract. cross_nutrient: Meal composition modifies the vitamin C/iron interaction. [c-hallberg1989] Iron absorption in man: ascorbic acid and dose-dependent inhibition by phytate (1989). https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/2911999/ DOI: 10.1093/ajcn/49.1.140

   Complete structured claim and evidence

8. Pooled regression adjusted for iron status found a positive association between ascorbic acid intake and absorption (P=0.0069), alongside associations with animal tissue and phosphate.

   L-Ascorbic acid → Nonheme iron absorption source_derived_draftungraded
   Experimental context and source evidence

   cross_nutrient

   Iron status and dietary matrix affect the observed relationship.

   experimental_model

   Twelve subjects completing three dietary periods; labeled wheat rolls with every meal for five days per period.

   exposure

   Self-selected, low-C and high-C complete diets; mean vitamin C intakes spanned 51–247 mg/day.

   limitations

   Regression within a small dietary experiment is not an isolated randomized causal estimate.

   nutrient_topic

   Vitamin C research collection; topical membership is not evidence of a direct dietary effect. · Vitamin C

   organism

   Homo sapiens

   plain_language

   The vitamin C association remained visible in an adjusted analysis, even though the period means did not differ significantly.

   primary_references

   [c-cook2001] Effect of ascorbic acid intake on nonheme-iron absorption from a complete diet (2001). https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11124756/ DOI: 10.1093/ajcn/73.1.93

   tissue_or_cell_type

   Human blood or whole-person endpoints

   Vitamin C: mechanisms, deficiency and nutrient interactions (2026-09-17) · lines 1606–1617

   AI-assisted literature curation; primary study URLs and scope retained in the document and extraction. Not publisher full text. · supports · Twelve subjects completing three dietary periods; labeled wheat rolls with every meal for five days per period. · source_derived_draft · unverified_draft

   ### c-whole-diet-adjusted-iron-association Pooled regression adjusted for iron status found a positive association between ascorbic acid intake and absorption (P=0.0069), alongside associations with animal tissue and phosphate. Condition category: normal nutrient_topic: Vitamin C research collection; topical membership is not evidence of a direct dietary effect. plain_language: The vitamin C association remained visible in an adjusted analysis, even though the period means did not differ significantly. organism: Homo sapiens tissue_or_cell_type: Human blood or whole-person endpoints experimental_model: Twelve subjects completing three dietary periods; labeled wheat rolls with every meal for five days per period. limitations: Regression within a small dietary experiment is not an isolated randomized causal estimate. exposure: Self-selected, low-C and high-C complete diets; mean vitamin C intakes spanned 51–247 mg/day. cross_nutrient: Iron status and dietary matrix affect the observed relationship. [c-cook2001] Effect of ascorbic acid intake on nonheme-iron absorption from a complete diet (2001). https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11124756/ DOI: 10.1093/ajcn/73.1.93

   Complete structured claim and evidence

9. Mean iron absorption did not differ significantly across the three complete-diet periods despite mean vitamin C intakes spanning 51–247 mg/day.

   L-Ascorbic acid → Nonheme iron absorption source_derived_draftungraded
   Experimental context and source evidence

   cross_nutrient

   Human total-diet boundary on the single-meal interaction.

   experimental_model

   Twelve subjects completing three dietary periods; labeled wheat rolls with every meal for five days per period.

   exposure

   Self-selected, low-C and high-C complete diets; mean vitamin C intakes spanned 51–247 mg/day.

   limitations

   Only twelve participants; meals and iron status also varied. Different design from the phytate challenge, not a draft correction or an unexplained contradiction.

   nutrient_topic

   Vitamin C research collection; topical membership is not evidence of a direct dietary effect. · Vitamin C

   organism

   Homo sapiens

   plain_language

   An effect visible in a single meal can be much smaller across a complete diet.

   primary_references

   [c-cook2001] Effect of ascorbic acid intake on nonheme-iron absorption from a complete diet (2001). https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11124756/ DOI: 10.1093/ajcn/73.1.93

   tissue_or_cell_type

   Human blood or whole-person endpoints

   Vitamin C: mechanisms, deficiency and nutrient interactions (2026-09-17) · lines 1593–1604

   AI-assisted literature curation; primary study URLs and scope retained in the document and extraction. Not publisher full text. · supports · Twelve subjects completing three dietary periods; labeled wheat rolls with every meal for five days per period. · source_derived_draft · unverified_draft

   ### c-whole-diet-iron-absorption-null Mean iron absorption did not differ significantly across the three complete-diet periods despite mean vitamin C intakes spanning 51–247 mg/day. Condition category: normal nutrient_topic: Vitamin C research collection; topical membership is not evidence of a direct dietary effect. plain_language: An effect visible in a single meal can be much smaller across a complete diet. organism: Homo sapiens tissue_or_cell_type: Human blood or whole-person endpoints experimental_model: Twelve subjects completing three dietary periods; labeled wheat rolls with every meal for five days per period. limitations: Only twelve participants; meals and iron status also varied. Different design from the phytate challenge, not a draft correction or an unexplained contradiction. exposure: Self-selected, low-C and high-C complete diets; mean vitamin C intakes spanned 51–247 mg/day. cross_nutrient: Human total-diet boundary on the single-meal interaction. [c-cook2001] Effect of ascorbic acid intake on nonheme-iron absorption from a complete diet (2001). https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11124756/ DOI: 10.1093/ajcn/73.1.93

   Complete structured claim and evidence

10. Apparent iron absorption fell in this ileostomy experiment.

    Citrus pectin, preparation specified by study → Nonheme iron absorption source_derived_draftungraded
    Experimental context and source evidence

    evidence_span

    {"source_cache": "artifacts/pectin-research/6307932.abstract.txt", "locator": "Primary indexed abstract; zero-based, end-exclusive Unicode character offsets", "file_sha256": "fd45607a7ff1d1a20dd52d145134da591847919c3db47ef8a8cf5693fb9f80a1", "start_char": 0, "end_char": 1593, "text_sha256": "fd45607a7ff1d1a20dd52d145134da591847919c3db47ef8a8cf5693fb9f80a1"}

    experimental_model

    Within-person ileostomy balance study; six participants

    exposure

    15 g/day citrus pectin on days 5-7 of a 10-day low-fiber feeding protocol

    limitations

    Ileal apparent absorption and output are not whole-body status or clinical deficiency; the colon was bypassed.

    nutrient_topic

    Pectin research collection; topical membership is not evidence of a direct dietary effect. · Pectin, structurally heterogeneous plant polysaccharides

    organism

    Homo sapiens

    plain_language

    Less iron disappeared before the end of the small intestine.

    primary_references

    [pectin-p6307932] The effect of citrus pectin on the absorption of nutrients in the small intestine. (1983). https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/6307932/

    tissue_or_cell_type

    Small intestine; ileal effluent

    Pectin: metabolism, signaling and nutrient connections (2026-09-17) · lines 542–553

    AI-assisted literature curation; primary study URLs and scope retained in the document and extraction. Not publisher full text. · supports · Within-person ileostomy balance study; six participants · source_derived_draft · unverified_draft

    ### pectin-ileal-iron Apparent iron absorption fell in this ileostomy experiment. Condition category: normal nutrient_topic: Pectin research collection; topical membership is not evidence of a direct dietary effect. plain_language: Less iron disappeared before the end of the small intestine. organism: Homo sapiens tissue_or_cell_type: Small intestine; ileal effluent experimental_model: Within-person ileostomy balance study; six participants limitations: Ileal apparent absorption and output are not whole-body status or clinical deficiency; the colon was bypassed. exposure: 15 g/day citrus pectin on days 5-7 of a 10-day low-fiber feeding protocol evidence_span: {"source_cache": "artifacts/pectin-research/6307932.abstract.txt", "locator": "Primary indexed abstract; zero-based, end-exclusive Unicode character offsets", "file_sha256": "fd45607a7ff1d1a20dd52d145134da591847919c3db47ef8a8cf5693fb9f80a1", "start_char": 0, "end_char": 1593, "text_sha256": "fd45607a7ff1d1a20dd52d145134da591847919c3db47ef8a8cf5693fb9f80a1"} [pectin-p6307932] The effect of citrus pectin on the absorption of nutrients in the small intestine. (1983). https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/6307932/

    Complete structured claim and evidence

11. Pectin reduced inorganic iron fractional absorption in the hemochromatosis group, whereas cellulose did not show the same result.

    Pectin, structurally heterogeneous plant polysaccharides → Nonheme iron absorption source_derived_draftungraded
    Experimental context and source evidence

    evidence_span

    {"source_cache": "artifacts/pectin-research/6247906.abstract.txt", "locator": "Primary indexed abstract; zero-based, end-exclusive Unicode character offsets", "file_sha256": "2c107283e705511284aaecb49a765185e48f825963c872c6306d76f9cf4565cf", "start_char": 0, "end_char": 1307, "text_sha256": "2c107283e705511284aaecb49a765185e48f825963c872c6306d76f9cf4565cf"}

    experimental_model

    Tracer study in idiopathic hemochromatosis with in-vitro binding comparison

    exposure

    13 patients: pectin in eight, cellulose in five; 9 g/m2, own fasting controls; seven healthy basal comparators

    limitations

    Disease-specific small experiment; not a treatment recommendation or a universal effect of all fruit.

    nutrient_topic

    Pectin research collection; topical membership is not evidence of a direct dietary effect. · Pectin, structurally heterogeneous plant polysaccharides

    organism

    Homo sapiens; cell-free binding assay separately scoped

    plain_language

    Pectin can lower absorbed iron under these tested conditions.

    primary_references

    [pectin-p6247906] Evidence and mechanism for pectin-reduced intestinal inorganic iron absorption in idiopathic hemochromatosis. (1980). https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/6247906/ DOI: 10.1093/ajcn/33.6.1225

    tissue_or_cell_type

    Intestinal inorganic iron absorption

    Pectin: metabolism, signaling and nutrient connections (2026-09-17) · lines 633–644

    AI-assisted literature curation; primary study URLs and scope retained in the document and extraction. Not publisher full text. · supports · Tracer study in idiopathic hemochromatosis with in-vitro binding comparison · source_derived_draft · unverified_draft

    ### pectin-iron-absorption Pectin reduced inorganic iron fractional absorption in the hemochromatosis group, whereas cellulose did not show the same result. Condition category: normal nutrient_topic: Pectin research collection; topical membership is not evidence of a direct dietary effect. plain_language: Pectin can lower absorbed iron under these tested conditions. organism: Homo sapiens; cell-free binding assay separately scoped tissue_or_cell_type: Intestinal inorganic iron absorption experimental_model: Tracer study in idiopathic hemochromatosis with in-vitro binding comparison limitations: Disease-specific small experiment; not a treatment recommendation or a universal effect of all fruit. exposure: 13 patients: pectin in eight, cellulose in five; 9 g/m2, own fasting controls; seven healthy basal comparators evidence_span: {"source_cache": "artifacts/pectin-research/6247906.abstract.txt", "locator": "Primary indexed abstract; zero-based, end-exclusive Unicode character offsets", "file_sha256": "2c107283e705511284aaecb49a765185e48f825963c872c6306d76f9cf4565cf", "start_char": 0, "end_char": 1307, "text_sha256": "2c107283e705511284aaecb49a765185e48f825963c872c6306d76f9cf4565cf"} [pectin-p6247906] Evidence and mechanism for pectin-reduced intestinal inorganic iron absorption in idiopathic hemochromatosis. (1980). https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/6247906/ DOI: 10.1093/ajcn/33.6.1225

    Complete structured claim and evidence

12. Five isotope studies did not confirm enhanced iron absorption after adding retinyl palmitate to corn-bread meals.

    All-trans-retinyl palmitate → Nonheme iron absorption source_derived_draftungraded
    Experimental context and source evidence

    cross_nutrient

    Vitamin A/iron absorption replication disagreement.

    experimental_model

    Water/coffee meal conditions; stable and radioisotope methods.

    limitations

    Possible effect modification by poor vitamin A status remained unresolved; beta-carotene was not directly retested.

    nutrient_topic

    Vitamin A research collection; topical membership is not evidence of a direct dietary effect. · Vitamin A

    organism

    Homo sapiens

    plain_language

    Follow-up experiments did not reproduce the earlier positive result.

    primary_references

    [va-walczyk2003] No enhancing effect of vitamin A on iron absorption in humans (2003). https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12499334/ DOI: 10.1093/ajcn/77.1.144

    tissue_or_cell_type

    Intestinal absorption

    Vitamin A: forms, mechanisms, deficiency and excess (2026-09-17) · lines 1566–1576

    AI-assisted literature curation; primary study URLs and scope retained in the document and extraction. Not publisher full text. · supports · Water/coffee meal conditions; stable and radioisotope methods. · source_derived_draft · unverified_draft

    ### va-iron-absorption-no-enhancement2003 Five isotope studies did not confirm enhanced iron absorption after adding retinyl palmitate to corn-bread meals. Condition category: normal nutrient_topic: Vitamin A research collection; topical membership is not evidence of a direct dietary effect. plain_language: Follow-up experiments did not reproduce the earlier positive result. organism: Homo sapiens tissue_or_cell_type: Intestinal absorption experimental_model: Water/coffee meal conditions; stable and radioisotope methods. limitations: Possible effect modification by poor vitamin A status remained unresolved; beta-carotene was not directly retested. cross_nutrient: Vitamin A/iron absorption replication disagreement. [va-walczyk2003] No enhancing effect of vitamin A on iron absorption in humans (2003). https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12499334/ DOI: 10.1093/ajcn/77.1.144

    Complete structured claim and evidence

13. Vitamin A and beta-carotene increased labelled nonheme iron absorption from tested cereal meals.

    Vitamin A → Nonheme iron absorption source_derived_draftungraded
    Experimental context and source evidence

    cross_nutrient

    Vitamin A/carotene -> iron absorption; contested.

    experimental_model

    Six human cereal-meal studies.

    limitations

    Not consistently replicated; the claimed iron-complex mechanism was proposed rather than structurally demonstrated.

    nutrient_topic

    Vitamin A research collection; topical membership is not evidence of a direct dietary effect. · Vitamin A

    organism

    Homo sapiens

    plain_language

    This study found that the meal additives made more iron available.

    primary_references

    [va-garciacasal1998] Vitamin A and beta-carotene can improve nonheme iron absorption from rice, wheat and corn by humans (1998). https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9482776/ DOI: 10.1093/jn/128.3.646

    tissue_or_cell_type

    Intestinal absorption

    Vitamin A: forms, mechanisms, deficiency and excess (2026-09-17) · lines 1542–1552

    AI-assisted literature curation; primary study URLs and scope retained in the document and extraction. Not publisher full text. · supports · Six human cereal-meal studies. · source_derived_draft · unverified_draft

    ### va-iron-absorption-positive1998 Vitamin A and beta-carotene increased labelled nonheme iron absorption from tested cereal meals. Condition category: normal nutrient_topic: Vitamin A research collection; topical membership is not evidence of a direct dietary effect. plain_language: This study found that the meal additives made more iron available. organism: Homo sapiens tissue_or_cell_type: Intestinal absorption experimental_model: Six human cereal-meal studies. limitations: Not consistently replicated; the claimed iron-complex mechanism was proposed rather than structurally demonstrated. cross_nutrient: Vitamin A/carotene -> iron absorption; contested. [va-garciacasal1998] Vitamin A and beta-carotene can improve nonheme iron absorption from rice, wheat and corn by humans (1998). https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9482776/ DOI: 10.1093/jn/128.3.646

    Complete structured claim and evidence

14. Fractional iron absorption on the initial and alternate-day doses was 40–50% higher than on the consecutive-day dose.

    Ferrous sulfate → Nonheme iron absorption source_derived_draftungraded
    Experimental context and source evidence

    evidence_span

    {"source_cache": "artifacts/iron-research/31413088.abstract.txt", "locator": "Exact primary indexed abstract; zero-based, end-exclusive Unicode character offsets", "file_sha256": "8b12cbd03fa44886ae6bf6bd4d58db7bbbf21dad0461eef9b63d3c7da25c542c", "start_char": 0, "end_char": 2483, "text_sha256": "8b12cbd03fa44886ae6bf6bd4d58db7bbbf21dad0461eef9b63d3c7da25c542c"}

    experimental_model

    Stable-isotope crossover absorption study

    exposure

    100 or 200 mg ferrous sulfate on consecutive and alternate days

    limitations

    Absorption trial, not a universal dosing directive; the indexed abstract contains implausible units for baseline hemoglobin/ferritin, which are not reproduced as clinical thresholds.

    nutrient_topic

    Iron research collection; topical membership is not evidence of a direct dietary effect. · Iron

    organism

    19 women with iron-deficiency anemia

    plain_language

    Spacing changed absorption in this trial, but the study alone does not decide every patient’s regimen.

    primary_references

    [iron-p31413088] Iron absorption from supplements is greater with alternate day than with consecutive day dosing in iron-deficient anemic women. (2020). https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31413088/ DOI: 10.3324/haematol.2019.220830

    tissue_or_cell_type

    Oral absorption and hepcidin

    Iron: absorption, trafficking, iron-dependent enzymes and nutrient interactions (2026-09-17) · lines 1304–1315

    AI-assisted literature curation; primary study URLs and scope retained in the document and extraction. Not publisher full text. · supports · Stable-isotope crossover absorption study · source_derived_draft · unverified_draft

    ### iron-alternate-absorption Fractional iron absorption on the initial and alternate-day doses was 40–50% higher than on the consecutive-day dose. Condition category: normal nutrient_topic: Iron research collection; topical membership is not evidence of a direct dietary effect. plain_language: Spacing changed absorption in this trial, but the study alone does not decide every patient’s regimen. organism: 19 women with iron-deficiency anemia tissue_or_cell_type: Oral absorption and hepcidin experimental_model: Stable-isotope crossover absorption study limitations: Absorption trial, not a universal dosing directive; the indexed abstract contains implausible units for baseline hemoglobin/ferritin, which are not reproduced as clinical thresholds. exposure: 100 or 200 mg ferrous sulfate on consecutive and alternate days evidence_span: {"source_cache": "artifacts/iron-research/31413088.abstract.txt", "locator": "Exact primary indexed abstract; zero-based, end-exclusive Unicode character offsets", "file_sha256": "8b12cbd03fa44886ae6bf6bd4d58db7bbbf21dad0461eef9b63d3c7da25c542c", "start_char": 0, "end_char": 2483, "text_sha256": "8b12cbd03fa44886ae6bf6bd4d58db7bbbf21dad0461eef9b63d3c7da25c542c"} [iron-p31413088] Iron absorption from supplements is greater with alternate day than with consecutive day dosing in iron-deficient anemic women. (2020). https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31413088/ DOI: 10.3324/haematol.2019.220830

    Complete structured claim and evidence

15. Increasing the dose from 40 to 240 mg reduced fractional absorption but increased the absolute amount absorbed from 6.7 to 18.1 mg.

    Ferrous sulfate → Nonheme iron absorption source_derived_draftungraded
    Experimental context and source evidence

    evidence_span

    {"source_cache": "artifacts/iron-research/26289639.abstract.txt", "locator": "Exact primary indexed abstract; zero-based, end-exclusive Unicode character offsets", "file_sha256": "67eb8d47c0df5398c03a2a73fdd7698efc0467e85db72cfdcc829fab72b90096", "start_char": 0, "end_char": 1708, "text_sha256": "67eb8d47c0df5398c03a2a73fdd7698efc0467e85db72cfdcc829fab72b90096"}

    experimental_model

    Stable-isotope dose studies

    exposure

    40–240 mg oral labeled ferrous sulfate; successive or twice-daily doses

    limitations

    Short-term fractional absorption is not equivalent to long-term hemoglobin recovery; dose values describe the experiment.

    nutrient_topic

    Iron research collection; topical membership is not evidence of a direct dietary effect. · Iron

    organism

    54 nonanemic iron-depleted young women

    plain_language

    A smaller absorbed percentage can still represent more milligrams; the two measurements should not be confused.

    primary_references

    [iron-p26289639] Oral iron supplements increase hepcidin and decrease iron absorption from daily or twice-daily doses in iron-depleted young women. (2015). https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26289639/ DOI: 10.1182/blood-2015-05-642223

    tissue_or_cell_type

    Iron absorption and circulating hepcidin

    Iron: absorption, trafficking, iron-dependent enzymes and nutrient interactions (2026-09-17) · lines 1291–1302

    AI-assisted literature curation; primary study URLs and scope retained in the document and extraction. Not publisher full text. · supports · Stable-isotope dose studies · source_derived_draft · unverified_draft

    ### iron-fraction-versus-amount Increasing the dose from 40 to 240 mg reduced fractional absorption but increased the absolute amount absorbed from 6.7 to 18.1 mg. Condition category: normal nutrient_topic: Iron research collection; topical membership is not evidence of a direct dietary effect. plain_language: A smaller absorbed percentage can still represent more milligrams; the two measurements should not be confused. organism: 54 nonanemic iron-depleted young women tissue_or_cell_type: Iron absorption and circulating hepcidin experimental_model: Stable-isotope dose studies limitations: Short-term fractional absorption is not equivalent to long-term hemoglobin recovery; dose values describe the experiment. exposure: 40–240 mg oral labeled ferrous sulfate; successive or twice-daily doses evidence_span: {"source_cache": "artifacts/iron-research/26289639.abstract.txt", "locator": "Exact primary indexed abstract; zero-based, end-exclusive Unicode character offsets", "file_sha256": "67eb8d47c0df5398c03a2a73fdd7698efc0467e85db72cfdcc829fab72b90096", "start_char": 0, "end_char": 1708, "text_sha256": "67eb8d47c0df5398c03a2a73fdd7698efc0467e85db72cfdcc829fab72b90096"} [iron-p26289639] Oral iron supplements increase hepcidin and decrease iron absorption from daily or twice-daily doses in iron-depleted young women. (2015). https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26289639/ DOI: 10.1182/blood-2015-05-642223

    Complete structured claim and evidence

16. Iron absorption was significantly higher when tea was consumed one hour after the meal than when consumed simultaneously (P=0.046).

    Nonheme dietary iron → Nonheme iron absorption source_derived_draftungraded
    Experimental context and source evidence

    evidence_span

    {"source_cache": "artifacts/iron-research/29046302.abstract.txt", "locator": "Exact primary indexed abstract; zero-based, end-exclusive Unicode character offsets", "file_sha256": "3a01f467e543b56e182ef6acfe15ca9d65474590ef9490bc698f864765588366", "start_char": 0, "end_char": 1971, "text_sha256": "3a01f467e543b56e182ef6acfe15ca9d65474590ef9490bc698f864765588366"}

    experimental_model

    Three-period stable-isotope meal experiment

    exposure

    Labeled porridge with water, simultaneous tea or tea one hour later

    limitations

    Acute fractional absorption endpoint; not a long-term anemia trial or proof that all tea preparations have equal effects.

    nutrient_topic

    Iron research collection; topical membership is not evidence of a direct dietary effect. · Iron

    organism

    12 iron-replete nonanemic women

    plain_language

    The timing of a meal inhibitor changed how much iron was absorbed.

    primary_references

    [iron-p29046302] A 1-h time interval between a meal containing iron and consumption of tea attenuates the inhibitory effects on iron absorption: a controlled trial in a cohort of healthy UK women using a stable iron isotope. (2017). https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29046302/ DOI: 10.3945/ajcn.117.161364

    tissue_or_cell_type

    Intestinal nonheme iron absorption

    Iron: absorption, trafficking, iron-dependent enzymes and nutrient interactions (2026-09-17) · lines 1005–1016

    AI-assisted literature curation; primary study URLs and scope retained in the document and extraction. Not publisher full text. · supports · Three-period stable-isotope meal experiment · source_derived_draft · unverified_draft

    ### iron-tea-timing Iron absorption was significantly higher when tea was consumed one hour after the meal than when consumed simultaneously (P=0.046). Condition category: normal nutrient_topic: Iron research collection; topical membership is not evidence of a direct dietary effect. plain_language: The timing of a meal inhibitor changed how much iron was absorbed. organism: 12 iron-replete nonanemic women tissue_or_cell_type: Intestinal nonheme iron absorption experimental_model: Three-period stable-isotope meal experiment limitations: Acute fractional absorption endpoint; not a long-term anemia trial or proof that all tea preparations have equal effects. exposure: Labeled porridge with water, simultaneous tea or tea one hour later evidence_span: {"source_cache": "artifacts/iron-research/29046302.abstract.txt", "locator": "Exact primary indexed abstract; zero-based, end-exclusive Unicode character offsets", "file_sha256": "3a01f467e543b56e182ef6acfe15ca9d65474590ef9490bc698f864765588366", "start_char": 0, "end_char": 1971, "text_sha256": "3a01f467e543b56e182ef6acfe15ca9d65474590ef9490bc698f864765588366"} [iron-p29046302] A 1-h time interval between a meal containing iron and consumption of tea attenuates the inhibitory effects on iron absorption: a controlled trial in a cohort of healthy UK women using a stable iron isotope. (2017). https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29046302/ DOI: 10.3945/ajcn.117.161364

    Complete structured claim and evidence

17. Adding sodium phytate to otherwise phytate-free wheat rolls inhibited iron absorption in a dose-dependent manner.

    Phytic acid / phytate → Nonheme iron absorption source_derived_draftungraded
    Experimental context and source evidence

    evidence_span

    {"source_cache": "artifacts/inositol-research/2911999.abstract.txt", "locator": "Exact primary indexed abstract; zero-based, end-exclusive Unicode character offsets", "file_sha256": "a5b0473a7a412eec5479259c7214b462fa6cfcc5948a6dae68db636de4e76f24", "start_char": 0, "end_char": 943, "text_sha256": "a5b0473a7a412eec5479259c7214b462fa6cfcc5948a6dae68db636de4e76f24"}

    experimental_model

    Paired radioisotope meal-absorption study

    exposure

    Wheat rolls with increasing sodium phytate

    limitations

    Luminal phytate/InsP6 exposure is distinct from free myo-inositol and intracellular InsP6 signaling.

    nutrient_topic

    Inositol research collection; topical membership is not evidence of a direct dietary effect. · Inositol (stereoisomer family)

    organism

    Homo sapiens

    plain_language

    The six-phosphate form in food can reduce absorption of iron from that meal.

    primary_references

    [ino-p2911999] Iron absorption in man: ascorbic acid and dose-dependent inhibition by phytate. (1989). https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/2911999/ DOI: 10.1093/ajcn/49.1.140

    tissue_or_cell_type

    Intestinal iron absorption

    Inositol: synthesis, signaling, mineral interactions and conditional deficiency (2026-09-17) · lines 1159–1170

    AI-assisted literature curation; primary study URLs and scope retained in the document and extraction. Not publisher full text. · supports · Paired radioisotope meal-absorption study · source_derived_draft · unverified_draft

    ### ino-phytate-iron Adding sodium phytate to otherwise phytate-free wheat rolls inhibited iron absorption in a dose-dependent manner. Condition category: normal nutrient_topic: Inositol research collection; topical membership is not evidence of a direct dietary effect. plain_language: The six-phosphate form in food can reduce absorption of iron from that meal. organism: Homo sapiens tissue_or_cell_type: Intestinal iron absorption experimental_model: Paired radioisotope meal-absorption study limitations: Luminal phytate/InsP6 exposure is distinct from free myo-inositol and intracellular InsP6 signaling. exposure: Wheat rolls with increasing sodium phytate evidence_span: {"source_cache": "artifacts/inositol-research/2911999.abstract.txt", "locator": "Exact primary indexed abstract; zero-based, end-exclusive Unicode character offsets", "file_sha256": "a5b0473a7a412eec5479259c7214b462fa6cfcc5948a6dae68db636de4e76f24", "start_char": 0, "end_char": 943, "text_sha256": "a5b0473a7a412eec5479259c7214b462fa6cfcc5948a6dae68db636de4e76f24"} [ino-p2911999] Iron absorption in man: ascorbic acid and dose-dependent inhibition by phytate. (1989). https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/2911999/ DOI: 10.1093/ajcn/49.1.140

    Complete structured claim and evidence

18. In 30 women with low iron stores, 150 and 300 mg EGCG reduced relative nonheme-iron absorption by 14% and 27%; the 300 mg comparison with placebo was significant.

    Epigallocatechin-3-gallate (EGCG) → Nonheme iron absorption source_derived_draftungraded
    Experimental context and source evidence

    experimental_model

    Randomized double-blind three-period crossover; eight days per period; stable iron isotopes.

    limitations

    The reassuring paper title does not negate its significant high-dose result. Low-dose impact in healthy iron-replete people was an author extrapolation, not the studied population.

    nutrient_topic

    EGCG collection; comparator and shared-pathway records retain their actual intervention. · Epigallocatechin-3-gallate (EGCG)

    plain_language

    EGCG reduced iron absorption at the higher tested dose.

    primary_references

    Epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG) (TEAVIGO) does not impair nonhaem-iron absorption in man. · 2005 · https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16008116/ · DOI 10.1016/j.phymed.2004.07.001

    EGCG: receptor signaling, metabolism, nutrient interactions and discovery questions (2026-09-18) · lines 188–194

    AI-assisted research curation; primary-abstract references and experimental limitations individually identified. Not publisher full text. · supports · Randomized double-blind three-period crossover; eight days per period; stable iron isotopes. · source_derived_draft · unverified_draft

    ## egcg-iron EGCG reduced iron absorption at the higher tested dose. In 30 women with low iron stores, 150 and 300 mg EGCG reduced relative nonheme-iron absorption by 14% and 27%; the 300 mg comparison with placebo was significant. Model: Randomized double-blind three-period crossover; eight days per period; stable iron isotopes. Limitations: The reassuring paper title does not negate its significant high-dose result. Low-dose impact in healthy iron-replete people was an author extrapolation, not the studied population. Evidence access: primary abstract. Epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG) (TEAVIGO) does not impair nonhaem-iron absorption in man. · 2005 · https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16008116/ · DOI 10.1016/j.phymed.2004.07.001

    Complete structured claim and evidence