Component

Betanin

Red-violet betacyanin; betanidin 5-O-beta-glucoside. Distinct from betaine.

22 recorded relationships. Experimental role, claim status and evidence remain attached to each record.

Read recorded mechanisms Open recursive mind map

How nutrients influence it

Every nutrient with a recorded effect on this component, credited to the nutrient that acted rather than the chapter that recorded it. Open a nutrient to see the findings and the conditions they were measured under.

How nutrients reach it in more than one step

Chains of two or more recorded steps that end here, grouped by the nutrient they start from. Each step is a separate finding, so a chain is a route a mechanism could take, not proof that it does.

Tracing routes…

What it does

Every recorded relationship this component is part of, grouped by its role. Plain wording comes first; the technical statement follows.

Recorded relationships

What it acts on

  1. Betanin stimulated or inhibited MPO chlorination at neutral pH depending on concentration; at pH 5 only inhibition was observed.

    Betanin → Human myeloperoxidase / MPO source_derived_draftungraded
    Experimental context and source evidence
    dose
    Micromolar substrates; concentration-dependent chlorination assays
    duration
    Rapid kinetic measurements at 25 degrees C; pH 7.0 and pH 5.0
    evidence_access
    Primary PubMed abstract; detailed exposure for PMID 23931157 additionally checked in publisher results. No uninspected full text is claimed.
    evidence_scope
    literature_reviewed; source-derived curation, not universally established human effects
    experimental_model
    Purified human myeloperoxidase; cell-free chemistry
    limitations
    MPO substrates can stimulate or inhibit chlorination depending on conditions; not a universal MPO inhibitor.
    nutrient_topic
    Betalains collection; each molecular form, species, exposure and preparation remains explicit. · Betalains
    organism
    Purified human myeloperoxidase; cell-free chemistry
    plain_language
    Betanin stimulated or inhibited MPO chlorination at neutral pH depending on concentration; at pH 5 only inhibition was observed.
    primary_references
    Mechanism of interaction of betanin and indicaxanthin with human myeloperoxidase and hypochlorous acid. (2005). https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15913556/ DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2005.05.031
    route
    In vitro reagent addition
    tissue
    MPO redox cycle and HOCl solution

    Betalains: mechanisms, molecular forms and cross-actor connections (2026-09-20) · lines 137–145

    Original AI-assisted curation of twelve primary research papers; study-specific PubMed/DOI links and limitations retained. Not publisher full text. · supports · Purified human myeloperoxidase; cell-free chemistry · source_derived_draft · unverified_draft

    ## betalains-betanin-chlorination Betanin stimulated or inhibited MPO chlorination at neutral pH depending on concentration; at pH 5 only inhibition was observed. Model/species: Purified human myeloperoxidase; cell-free chemistry Tissue: MPO redox cycle and HOCl solution Exposure: Micromolar substrates; concentration-dependent chlorination assays Route: In vitro reagent addition Duration: Rapid kinetic measurements at 25 degrees C; pH 7.0 and pH 5.0 Limits: MPO substrates can stimulate or inhibit chlorination depending on conditions; not a universal MPO inhibitor. Primary reference: Mechanism of interaction of betanin and indicaxanthin with human myeloperoxidase and hypochlorous acid. (2005). https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15913556/ DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2005.05.031
    Complete structured claim and evidence

  2. Betanin reacted directly with hypochlorous acid in the kinetic assay.

    Betanin → Hypochlorous acid / HOCl source_derived_draftungraded
    Experimental context and source evidence
    dose
    Micromolar substrates; concentration-dependent chlorination assays
    duration
    Rapid kinetic measurements at 25 degrees C; pH 7.0 and pH 5.0
    evidence_access
    Primary PubMed abstract; detailed exposure for PMID 23931157 additionally checked in publisher results. No uninspected full text is claimed.
    evidence_scope
    literature_reviewed; source-derived curation, not universally established human effects
    experimental_model
    Purified human myeloperoxidase; cell-free chemistry
    limitations
    MPO substrates can stimulate or inhibit chlorination depending on conditions; not a universal MPO inhibitor.
    nutrient_topic
    Betalains collection; each molecular form, species, exposure and preparation remains explicit. · Betalains
    organism
    Purified human myeloperoxidase; cell-free chemistry
    plain_language
    Betanin reacted directly with hypochlorous acid in the kinetic assay.
    primary_references
    Mechanism of interaction of betanin and indicaxanthin with human myeloperoxidase and hypochlorous acid. (2005). https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15913556/ DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2005.05.031
    route
    In vitro reagent addition
    tissue
    MPO redox cycle and HOCl solution

    Betalains: mechanisms, molecular forms and cross-actor connections (2026-09-20) · lines 127–135

    Original AI-assisted curation of twelve primary research papers; study-specific PubMed/DOI links and limitations retained. Not publisher full text. · supports · Purified human myeloperoxidase; cell-free chemistry · source_derived_draft · unverified_draft

    ## betalains-betanin-hocl Betanin reacted directly with hypochlorous acid in the kinetic assay. Model/species: Purified human myeloperoxidase; cell-free chemistry Tissue: MPO redox cycle and HOCl solution Exposure: Micromolar substrates; concentration-dependent chlorination assays Route: In vitro reagent addition Duration: Rapid kinetic measurements at 25 degrees C; pH 7.0 and pH 5.0 Limits: MPO substrates can stimulate or inhibit chlorination depending on conditions; not a universal MPO inhibitor. Primary reference: Mechanism of interaction of betanin and indicaxanthin with human myeloperoxidase and hypochlorous acid. (2005). https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15913556/ DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2005.05.031
    Complete structured claim and evidence

  3. Betanin is the 5-O-beta-glucoside of betanidin.

    Betanin → Betanidin source_derived_draftungraded
    Experimental context and source evidence
    dose
    Assay-specific submicromolar to micromolar concentrations; oral arm 300 mL beet juice with 120 mg betanin
    duration
    Kinetic assays; urine collected 2-4 h after ingestion
    evidence_access
    Primary PubMed abstract; detailed exposure for PMID 23931157 additionally checked in publisher results. No uninspected full text is claimed.
    evidence_scope
    literature_reviewed; source-derived curation, not universally established human effects
    experimental_model
    Cell-free biochemical systems and four human volunteers
    limitations
    Chemical activity does not establish clinical efficacy or a dietary iron interaction. Identity only; not a demonstrated human conversion rate.
    nutrient_topic
    Betalains collection; each molecular form, species, exposure and preparation remains explicit. · Betalains
    organism
    Cell-free biochemical systems and four human volunteers
    plain_language
    Betanin is the 5-O-beta-glucoside of betanidin.
    primary_references
    Betalains--a new class of dietary cationized antioxidants. (2001). https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11714300/ DOI: 10.1021/jf010456f
    route
    In vitro addition; separate oral juice arm
    tissue
    Lipid emulsions, membranes, LDL; urine arm separate

    Betalains: mechanisms, molecular forms and cross-actor connections (2026-09-20) · lines 17–25

    Original AI-assisted curation of twelve primary research papers; study-specific PubMed/DOI links and limitations retained. Not publisher full text. · supports · Cell-free biochemical systems and four human volunteers · source_derived_draft · unverified_draft

    ## betalains-betanin-identity Betanin is the 5-O-beta-glucoside of betanidin. Model/species: Cell-free biochemical systems and four human volunteers Tissue: Lipid emulsions, membranes, LDL; urine arm separate Exposure: Assay-specific submicromolar to micromolar concentrations; oral arm 300 mL beet juice with 120 mg betanin Route: In vitro addition; separate oral juice arm Duration: Kinetic assays; urine collected 2-4 h after ingestion Limits: Chemical activity does not establish clinical efficacy or a dietary iron interaction. Identity only; not a demonstrated human conversion rate. Primary reference: Betalains--a new class of dietary cationized antioxidants. (2001). https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11714300/ DOI: 10.1021/jf010456f
    Complete structured claim and evidence

  4. Added betanin inhibited iron-redox-driven lipid peroxidation in cell-free lipid preparations.

    Betanin → Lipid peroxidation source_derived_draftungraded
    Experimental context and source evidence
    dose
    Assay-specific submicromolar to micromolar concentrations; oral arm 300 mL beet juice with 120 mg betanin
    duration
    Kinetic assays; urine collected 2-4 h after ingestion
    evidence_access
    Primary PubMed abstract; detailed exposure for PMID 23931157 additionally checked in publisher results. No uninspected full text is claimed.
    evidence_scope
    literature_reviewed; source-derived curation, not universally established human effects
    experimental_model
    Cell-free biochemical systems and four human volunteers
    limitations
    Chemical activity does not establish clinical efficacy or a dietary iron interaction.
    nutrient_topic
    Betalains collection; each molecular form, species, exposure and preparation remains explicit. · Betalains
    organism
    Cell-free biochemical systems and four human volunteers
    plain_language
    Added betanin inhibited iron-redox-driven lipid peroxidation in cell-free lipid preparations.
    primary_references
    Betalains--a new class of dietary cationized antioxidants. (2001). https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11714300/ DOI: 10.1021/jf010456f
    route
    In vitro addition; separate oral juice arm
    tissue
    Lipid emulsions, membranes, LDL; urine arm separate

    Betalains: mechanisms, molecular forms and cross-actor connections (2026-09-20) · lines 27–35

    Original AI-assisted curation of twelve primary research papers; study-specific PubMed/DOI links and limitations retained. Not publisher full text. · supports · Cell-free biochemical systems and four human volunteers · source_derived_draft · unverified_draft

    ## betalains-betanin-iron-oxidation Added betanin inhibited iron-redox-driven lipid peroxidation in cell-free lipid preparations. Model/species: Cell-free biochemical systems and four human volunteers Tissue: Lipid emulsions, membranes, LDL; urine arm separate Exposure: Assay-specific submicromolar to micromolar concentrations; oral arm 300 mL beet juice with 120 mg betanin Route: In vitro addition; separate oral juice arm Duration: Kinetic assays; urine collected 2-4 h after ingestion Limits: Chemical activity does not establish clinical efficacy or a dietary iron interaction. Primary reference: Betalains--a new class of dietary cationized antioxidants. (2001). https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11714300/ DOI: 10.1021/jf010456f
    Complete structured claim and evidence

  5. Adding betanin to human plasma produced pigment-enriched LDL after particle isolation.

    Betanin → Low-density lipoprotein particles; preparation specified source_derived_draftungraded
    Experimental context and source evidence
    dose
    25-100 micromolar pigment added to plasma; copper-triggered LDL oxidation
    duration
    Kinetic oxidation assay; incubation duration not specified in accessed abstract
    evidence_access
    Primary PubMed abstract; detailed exposure for PMID 23931157 additionally checked in publisher results. No uninspected full text is claimed.
    evidence_scope
    literature_reviewed; source-derived curation, not universally established human effects
    experimental_model
    Human pooled plasma from 10 healthy donors; isolated LDL
    limitations
    Plasma spiking exceeds typical dietary parent-pigment exposure; vitamin synergy refers only to this assay.
    nutrient_topic
    Betalains collection; each molecular form, species, exposure and preparation remains explicit. · Betalains
    organism
    Human pooled plasma from 10 healthy donors; isolated LDL
    plain_language
    Adding betanin to human plasma produced pigment-enriched LDL after particle isolation.
    primary_references
    Increased resistance to oxidation of betalain-enriched human low density lipoproteins. (2003). https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12868496/ DOI: 10.1080/1071576031000097490
    route
    Ex vivo spiking, not oral dosing
    tissue
    Plasma and LDL

    Betalains: mechanisms, molecular forms and cross-actor connections (2026-09-20) · lines 47–55

    Original AI-assisted curation of twelve primary research papers; study-specific PubMed/DOI links and limitations retained. Not publisher full text. · supports · Human pooled plasma from 10 healthy donors; isolated LDL · source_derived_draft · unverified_draft

    ## betalains-betanin-ldl-binding Adding betanin to human plasma produced pigment-enriched LDL after particle isolation. Model/species: Human pooled plasma from 10 healthy donors; isolated LDL Tissue: Plasma and LDL Exposure: 25-100 micromolar pigment added to plasma; copper-triggered LDL oxidation Route: Ex vivo spiking, not oral dosing Duration: Kinetic oxidation assay; incubation duration not specified in accessed abstract Limits: Plasma spiking exceeds typical dietary parent-pigment exposure; vitamin synergy refers only to this assay. Primary reference: Increased resistance to oxidation of betalain-enriched human low density lipoproteins. (2003). https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12868496/ DOI: 10.1080/1071576031000097490
    Complete structured claim and evidence

  6. LDL enriched with betanin showed a longer lag before copper-induced oxidation.

    Betanin → Copper-driven LDL oxidation source_derived_draftungraded
    Experimental context and source evidence
    dose
    25-100 micromolar pigment added to plasma; copper-triggered LDL oxidation
    duration
    Kinetic oxidation assay; incubation duration not specified in accessed abstract
    evidence_access
    Primary PubMed abstract; detailed exposure for PMID 23931157 additionally checked in publisher results. No uninspected full text is claimed.
    evidence_scope
    literature_reviewed; source-derived curation, not universally established human effects
    experimental_model
    Human pooled plasma from 10 healthy donors; isolated LDL
    limitations
    Plasma spiking exceeds typical dietary parent-pigment exposure; vitamin synergy refers only to this assay.
    nutrient_topic
    Betalains collection; each molecular form, species, exposure and preparation remains explicit. · Betalains
    organism
    Human pooled plasma from 10 healthy donors; isolated LDL
    plain_language
    LDL enriched with betanin showed a longer lag before copper-induced oxidation.
    primary_references
    Increased resistance to oxidation of betalain-enriched human low density lipoproteins. (2003). https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12868496/ DOI: 10.1080/1071576031000097490
    route
    Ex vivo spiking, not oral dosing
    tissue
    Plasma and LDL

    Betalains: mechanisms, molecular forms and cross-actor connections (2026-09-20) · lines 57–65

    Original AI-assisted curation of twelve primary research papers; study-specific PubMed/DOI links and limitations retained. Not publisher full text. · supports · Human pooled plasma from 10 healthy donors; isolated LDL · source_derived_draft · unverified_draft

    ## betalains-betanin-ldl-oxidation LDL enriched with betanin showed a longer lag before copper-induced oxidation. Model/species: Human pooled plasma from 10 healthy donors; isolated LDL Tissue: Plasma and LDL Exposure: 25-100 micromolar pigment added to plasma; copper-triggered LDL oxidation Route: Ex vivo spiking, not oral dosing Duration: Kinetic oxidation assay; incubation duration not specified in accessed abstract Limits: Plasma spiking exceeds typical dietary parent-pigment exposure; vitamin synergy refers only to this assay. Primary reference: Increased resistance to oxidation of betalain-enriched human low density lipoproteins. (2003). https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12868496/ DOI: 10.1080/1071576031000097490
    Complete structured claim and evidence

  7. Betanin lowered NOX2 mRNA in the stimulated murine macrophage comparison.

    Betanin → Mouse CYBB / gp91phox source_derived_draftungraded
    Experimental context and source evidence
    dose
    Individual pigments 1-100 micromolar; LPS inflammatory stimulation or hydrogen peroxide oxidative challenge
    duration
    Not specified in accessed primary abstract
    evidence_access
    Primary PubMed abstract; detailed exposure for PMID 23931157 additionally checked in publisher results. No uninspected full text is claimed.
    evidence_scope
    literature_reviewed; source-derived curation, not universally established human effects
    experimental_model
    Mouse RAW 264.7 macrophages
    limitations
    Mouse-cell results are separate from human intestinal assays. Pro-oxidant effects under peroxide challenge do not imply every dietary exposure is harmful. Transcript measurement; not direct enzyme inhibition.
    nutrient_topic
    Betalains collection; each molecular form, species, exposure and preparation remains explicit. · Betalains
    organism
    Mouse RAW 264.7 macrophages
    plain_language
    Betanin lowered NOX2 mRNA in the stimulated murine macrophage comparison.
    primary_references
    Differential Effects of Betacyanin and Betaxanthin Pigments on Oxidative Stress and Inflammatory Response in Murine Macrophages. (2023). https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37203590/ DOI: 10.1002/mnfr.202200583
    route
    In vitro exposure
    tissue
    Macrophages

    Betalains: mechanisms, molecular forms and cross-actor connections (2026-09-20) · lines 397–405

    Original AI-assisted curation of twelve primary research papers; study-specific PubMed/DOI links and limitations retained. Not publisher full text. · supports · Mouse RAW 264.7 macrophages · source_derived_draft · unverified_draft

    ## betalains-betanin-mouse-nox2 Betanin lowered NOX2 mRNA in the stimulated murine macrophage comparison. Model/species: Mouse RAW 264.7 macrophages Tissue: Macrophages Exposure: Individual pigments 1-100 micromolar; LPS inflammatory stimulation or hydrogen peroxide oxidative challenge Route: In vitro exposure Duration: Not specified in accessed primary abstract Limits: Mouse-cell results are separate from human intestinal assays. Pro-oxidant effects under peroxide challenge do not imply every dietary exposure is harmful. Transcript measurement; not direct enzyme inhibition. Primary reference: Differential Effects of Betacyanin and Betaxanthin Pigments on Oxidative Stress and Inflammatory Response in Murine Macrophages. (2023). https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37203590/ DOI: 10.1002/mnfr.202200583
    Complete structured claim and evidence

  8. Betanin donated one electron to MPO compound I, producing compound II.

    Betanin → Human myeloperoxidase compound I source_derived_draftungraded
    Experimental context and source evidence
    dose
    Micromolar substrates; concentration-dependent chlorination assays
    duration
    Rapid kinetic measurements at 25 degrees C; pH 7.0 and pH 5.0
    evidence_access
    Primary PubMed abstract; detailed exposure for PMID 23931157 additionally checked in publisher results. No uninspected full text is claimed.
    evidence_scope
    literature_reviewed; source-derived curation, not universally established human effects
    experimental_model
    Purified human myeloperoxidase; cell-free chemistry
    limitations
    MPO substrates can stimulate or inhibit chlorination depending on conditions; not a universal MPO inhibitor. Negative direction denotes consumption of compound I, not overall inhibition of MPO.
    nutrient_topic
    Betalains collection; each molecular form, species, exposure and preparation remains explicit. · Betalains
    organism
    Purified human myeloperoxidase; cell-free chemistry
    plain_language
    Betanin donated one electron to MPO compound I, producing compound II.
    primary_references
    Mechanism of interaction of betanin and indicaxanthin with human myeloperoxidase and hypochlorous acid. (2005). https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15913556/ DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2005.05.031
    route
    In vitro reagent addition
    tissue
    MPO redox cycle and HOCl solution

    Betalains: mechanisms, molecular forms and cross-actor connections (2026-09-20) · lines 107–115

    Original AI-assisted curation of twelve primary research papers; study-specific PubMed/DOI links and limitations retained. Not publisher full text. · supports · Purified human myeloperoxidase; cell-free chemistry · source_derived_draft · unverified_draft

    ## betalains-betanin-mpo-i Betanin donated one electron to MPO compound I, producing compound II. Model/species: Purified human myeloperoxidase; cell-free chemistry Tissue: MPO redox cycle and HOCl solution Exposure: Micromolar substrates; concentration-dependent chlorination assays Route: In vitro reagent addition Duration: Rapid kinetic measurements at 25 degrees C; pH 7.0 and pH 5.0 Limits: MPO substrates can stimulate or inhibit chlorination depending on conditions; not a universal MPO inhibitor. Negative direction denotes consumption of compound I, not overall inhibition of MPO. Primary reference: Mechanism of interaction of betanin and indicaxanthin with human myeloperoxidase and hypochlorous acid. (2005). https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15913556/ DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2005.05.031
    Complete structured claim and evidence

  9. Betanin reduced MPO compound II to the native ferric enzyme.

    Betanin → Human myeloperoxidase compound II source_derived_draftungraded
    Experimental context and source evidence
    dose
    Micromolar substrates; concentration-dependent chlorination assays
    duration
    Rapid kinetic measurements at 25 degrees C; pH 7.0 and pH 5.0
    evidence_access
    Primary PubMed abstract; detailed exposure for PMID 23931157 additionally checked in publisher results. No uninspected full text is claimed.
    evidence_scope
    literature_reviewed; source-derived curation, not universally established human effects
    experimental_model
    Purified human myeloperoxidase; cell-free chemistry
    limitations
    MPO substrates can stimulate or inhibit chlorination depending on conditions; not a universal MPO inhibitor. Negative direction denotes consumption of compound II; this step can restore chlorination activity.
    nutrient_topic
    Betalains collection; each molecular form, species, exposure and preparation remains explicit. · Betalains
    organism
    Purified human myeloperoxidase; cell-free chemistry
    plain_language
    Betanin reduced MPO compound II to the native ferric enzyme.
    primary_references
    Mechanism of interaction of betanin and indicaxanthin with human myeloperoxidase and hypochlorous acid. (2005). https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15913556/ DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2005.05.031
    route
    In vitro reagent addition
    tissue
    MPO redox cycle and HOCl solution

    Betalains: mechanisms, molecular forms and cross-actor connections (2026-09-20) · lines 117–125

    Original AI-assisted curation of twelve primary research papers; study-specific PubMed/DOI links and limitations retained. Not publisher full text. · supports · Purified human myeloperoxidase; cell-free chemistry · source_derived_draft · unverified_draft

    ## betalains-betanin-mpo-ii Betanin reduced MPO compound II to the native ferric enzyme. Model/species: Purified human myeloperoxidase; cell-free chemistry Tissue: MPO redox cycle and HOCl solution Exposure: Micromolar substrates; concentration-dependent chlorination assays Route: In vitro reagent addition Duration: Rapid kinetic measurements at 25 degrees C; pH 7.0 and pH 5.0 Limits: MPO substrates can stimulate or inhibit chlorination depending on conditions; not a universal MPO inhibitor. Negative direction denotes consumption of compound II; this step can restore chlorination activity. Primary reference: Mechanism of interaction of betanin and indicaxanthin with human myeloperoxidase and hypochlorous acid. (2005). https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15913556/ DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2005.05.031
    Complete structured claim and evidence

  10. Betanin showed low apparent permeability across Caco-2 monolayers; the reported three-pigment range was 4.2-8.9 x 10^-7 cm/s.

    Betanin → Apparent betanin permeability in human Caco-2 monolayers source_derived_draftungraded
    Experimental context and source evidence
    dose
    Betalains 5-80 micromolar
    duration
    Not specified in accessed primary abstract
    evidence_access
    Primary PubMed abstract; detailed exposure for PMID 23931157 additionally checked in publisher results. No uninspected full text is claimed.
    evidence_scope
    literature_reviewed; source-derived curation, not universally established human effects
    experimental_model
    Human Caco-2 intestinal epithelial cell model
    limitations
    Low apparent permeability in cultured cells is not a measured human oral bioavailability fraction; findings depend on pigment and assay. The range spans the three compounds; it is not an assigned compound-specific coefficient.
    nutrient_topic
    Betalains collection; each molecular form, species, exposure and preparation remains explicit. · Betalains
    organism
    Human Caco-2 intestinal epithelial cell model
    plain_language
    Betanin showed low apparent permeability across Caco-2 monolayers; the reported three-pigment range was 4.2-8.9 x 10^-7 cm/s.
    primary_references
    Uptake and Immunomodulatory Properties of Betanin, Vulgaxanthin I and Indicaxanthin towards Caco-2 Intestinal Cells. (2022). https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36009345/ DOI: 10.3390/antiox11081627
    route
    In vitro exposure
    tissue
    Intestinal cells and monolayer transport

    Betalains: mechanisms, molecular forms and cross-actor connections (2026-09-20) · lines 367–375

    Original AI-assisted curation of twelve primary research papers; study-specific PubMed/DOI links and limitations retained. Not publisher full text. · supports · Human Caco-2 intestinal epithelial cell model · source_derived_draft · unverified_draft

    ## betalains-betanin-transport Betanin showed low apparent permeability across Caco-2 monolayers; the reported three-pigment range was 4.2-8.9 x 10^-7 cm/s. Model/species: Human Caco-2 intestinal epithelial cell model Tissue: Intestinal cells and monolayer transport Exposure: Betalains 5-80 micromolar Route: In vitro exposure Duration: Not specified in accessed primary abstract Limits: Low apparent permeability in cultured cells is not a measured human oral bioavailability fraction; findings depend on pigment and assay. The range spans the three compounds; it is not an assigned compound-specific coefficient. Primary reference: Uptake and Immunomodulatory Properties of Betanin, Vulgaxanthin I and Indicaxanthin towards Caco-2 Intestinal Cells. (2022). https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36009345/ DOI: 10.3390/antiox11081627
    Complete structured claim and evidence

  11. Betanin did not produce the early vitamin E preservation observed with indicaxanthin in this LDL experiment.

    Betanin → LDL vitamin E consumption during oxidation source_derived_draftungraded
    Experimental context and source evidence
    dose
    25-100 micromolar pigment added to plasma; copper-triggered LDL oxidation
    duration
    Kinetic oxidation assay; incubation duration not specified in accessed abstract
    evidence_access
    Primary PubMed abstract; detailed exposure for PMID 23931157 additionally checked in publisher results. No uninspected full text is claimed.
    evidence_scope
    literature_reviewed; source-derived curation, not universally established human effects
    experimental_model
    Human pooled plasma from 10 healthy donors; isolated LDL
    limitations
    Plasma spiking exceeds typical dietary parent-pigment exposure; vitamin synergy refers only to this assay.
    nutrient_topic
    Betalains collection; each molecular form, species, exposure and preparation remains explicit. · Betalains
    organism
    Human pooled plasma from 10 healthy donors; isolated LDL
    plain_language
    Betanin did not produce the early vitamin E preservation observed with indicaxanthin in this LDL experiment.
    primary_references
    Increased resistance to oxidation of betalain-enriched human low density lipoproteins. (2003). https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12868496/ DOI: 10.1080/1071576031000097490
    route
    Ex vivo spiking, not oral dosing
    tissue
    Plasma and LDL

    Betalains: mechanisms, molecular forms and cross-actor connections (2026-09-20) · lines 97–105

    Original AI-assisted curation of twelve primary research papers; study-specific PubMed/DOI links and limitations retained. Not publisher full text. · supports · Human pooled plasma from 10 healthy donors; isolated LDL · source_derived_draft · unverified_draft

    ## betalains-betanin-vitamin-e-null Betanin did not produce the early vitamin E preservation observed with indicaxanthin in this LDL experiment. Model/species: Human pooled plasma from 10 healthy donors; isolated LDL Tissue: Plasma and LDL Exposure: 25-100 micromolar pigment added to plasma; copper-triggered LDL oxidation Route: Ex vivo spiking, not oral dosing Duration: Kinetic oxidation assay; incubation duration not specified in accessed abstract Limits: Plasma spiking exceeds typical dietary parent-pigment exposure; vitamin synergy refers only to this assay. Primary reference: Increased resistance to oxidation of betalain-enriched human low density lipoproteins. (2003). https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12868496/ DOI: 10.1080/1071576031000097490
    Complete structured claim and evidence

  12. Betanin increased heme oxygenase-1 in the Caco-2 comparison; the two tested betaxanthins did not share this response.

    Betanin → Human heme oxygenase 1 / HMOX1 source_derived_draftungraded
    Experimental context and source evidence
    dose
    Betalains 5-80 micromolar
    duration
    Not specified in accessed primary abstract
    evidence_access
    Primary PubMed abstract; detailed exposure for PMID 23931157 additionally checked in publisher results. No uninspected full text is claimed.
    evidence_scope
    literature_reviewed; source-derived curation, not universally established human effects
    experimental_model
    Human Caco-2 intestinal epithelial cell model
    limitations
    Low apparent permeability in cultured cells is not a measured human oral bioavailability fraction; findings depend on pigment and assay. Expression response in this cell model; not direct HMOX1 activation or a demonstrated increase in heme turnover.
    nutrient_topic
    Betalains collection; each molecular form, species, exposure and preparation remains explicit. · Betalains
    organism
    Human Caco-2 intestinal epithelial cell model
    plain_language
    Betanin increased heme oxygenase-1 in the Caco-2 comparison; the two tested betaxanthins did not share this response.
    primary_references
    Uptake and Immunomodulatory Properties of Betanin, Vulgaxanthin I and Indicaxanthin towards Caco-2 Intestinal Cells. (2022). https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36009345/ DOI: 10.3390/antiox11081627
    route
    In vitro exposure
    tissue
    Intestinal cells and monolayer transport

    Betalains: mechanisms, molecular forms and cross-actor connections (2026-09-20) · lines 357–365

    Original AI-assisted curation of twelve primary research papers; study-specific PubMed/DOI links and limitations retained. Not publisher full text. · supports · Human Caco-2 intestinal epithelial cell model · source_derived_draft · unverified_draft

    ## betalains-caco2-hmox1 Betanin increased heme oxygenase-1 in the Caco-2 comparison; the two tested betaxanthins did not share this response. Model/species: Human Caco-2 intestinal epithelial cell model Tissue: Intestinal cells and monolayer transport Exposure: Betalains 5-80 micromolar Route: In vitro exposure Duration: Not specified in accessed primary abstract Limits: Low apparent permeability in cultured cells is not a measured human oral bioavailability fraction; findings depend on pigment and assay. Expression response in this cell model; not direct HMOX1 activation or a demonstrated increase in heme turnover. Primary reference: Uptake and Immunomodulatory Properties of Betanin, Vulgaxanthin I and Indicaxanthin towards Caco-2 Intestinal Cells. (2022). https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36009345/ DOI: 10.3390/antiox11081627
    Complete structured claim and evidence

  13. Betanin increased GSTP transcript and protein abundance in THLE-2 cells.

    Betanin → Human glutathione S-transferase P1 / GSTP1 source_derived_draftungraded
    Experimental context and source evidence
    dose
    Betanin 2, 10 and 20 micromolar
    duration
    Not specified in accessed primary abstract
    evidence_access
    Primary PubMed abstract; detailed exposure for PMID 23931157 additionally checked in publisher results. No uninspected full text is claimed.
    evidence_scope
    literature_reviewed; source-derived curation, not universally established human effects
    experimental_model
    Human THLE-2 non-tumour liver and HepG2 hepatoma cell lines
    limitations
    Responses differed by cell line. Nuclear translocation is not proof of universal transcriptional activation; kinase association does not prove direct binding. Glutathione is the shared GST substrate; this study does not show betanin raises glutathione synthesis or reverses deficiency.
    nutrient_topic
    Betalains collection; each molecular form, species, exposure and preparation remains explicit. · Betalains
    organism
    Human THLE-2 non-tumour liver and HepG2 hepatoma cell lines
    plain_language
    Betanin increased GSTP transcript and protein abundance in THLE-2 cells.
    primary_references
    Betanin, a beetroot component, induces nuclear factor erythroid-2-related factor 2-mediated expression of detoxifying/antioxidant enzymes in human liver cell lines. (2013). https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23769299/ DOI: 10.1017/S0007114513001645
    route
    In vitro incubation
    tissue
    Liver-derived cells; cytosol and nucleus

    Betalains: mechanisms, molecular forms and cross-actor connections (2026-09-20) · lines 237–245

    Original AI-assisted curation of twelve primary research papers; study-specific PubMed/DOI links and limitations retained. Not publisher full text. · supports · Human THLE-2 non-tumour liver and HepG2 hepatoma cell lines · source_derived_draft · unverified_draft

    ## betalains-gstp-expression Betanin increased GSTP transcript and protein abundance in THLE-2 cells. Model/species: Human THLE-2 non-tumour liver and HepG2 hepatoma cell lines Tissue: Liver-derived cells; cytosol and nucleus Exposure: Betanin 2, 10 and 20 micromolar Route: In vitro incubation Duration: Not specified in accessed primary abstract Limits: Responses differed by cell line. Nuclear translocation is not proof of universal transcriptional activation; kinase association does not prove direct binding. Glutathione is the shared GST substrate; this study does not show betanin raises glutathione synthesis or reverses deficiency. Primary reference: Betanin, a beetroot component, induces nuclear factor erythroid-2-related factor 2-mediated expression of detoxifying/antioxidant enzymes in human liver cell lines. (2013). https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23769299/ DOI: 10.1017/S0007114513001645
    Complete structured claim and evidence

  14. Betanin did not alter GSTP1 methylation in HepG2 cells.

    Betanin → Human glutathione S-transferase P1 / GSTP1 source_derived_draftungraded
    Experimental context and source evidence
    dose
    Betanin 2, 10 and 20 micromolar
    duration
    Not specified in accessed primary abstract
    evidence_access
    Primary PubMed abstract; detailed exposure for PMID 23931157 additionally checked in publisher results. No uninspected full text is claimed.
    evidence_scope
    literature_reviewed; source-derived curation, not universally established human effects
    experimental_model
    Human THLE-2 non-tumour liver and HepG2 hepatoma cell lines
    limitations
    Responses differed by cell line. Nuclear translocation is not proof of universal transcriptional activation; kinase association does not prove direct binding.
    nutrient_topic
    Betalains collection; each molecular form, species, exposure and preparation remains explicit. · Betalains
    organism
    Human THLE-2 non-tumour liver and HepG2 hepatoma cell lines
    plain_language
    Betanin did not alter GSTP1 methylation in HepG2 cells.
    primary_references
    Betanin, a beetroot component, induces nuclear factor erythroid-2-related factor 2-mediated expression of detoxifying/antioxidant enzymes in human liver cell lines. (2013). https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23769299/ DOI: 10.1017/S0007114513001645
    route
    In vitro incubation
    tissue
    Liver-derived cells; cytosol and nucleus

    Betalains: mechanisms, molecular forms and cross-actor connections (2026-09-20) · lines 247–255

    Original AI-assisted curation of twelve primary research papers; study-specific PubMed/DOI links and limitations retained. Not publisher full text. · supports · Human THLE-2 non-tumour liver and HepG2 hepatoma cell lines · source_derived_draft · unverified_draft

    ## betalains-hepg2-methylation-null Betanin did not alter GSTP1 methylation in HepG2 cells. Model/species: Human THLE-2 non-tumour liver and HepG2 hepatoma cell lines Tissue: Liver-derived cells; cytosol and nucleus Exposure: Betanin 2, 10 and 20 micromolar Route: In vitro incubation Duration: Not specified in accessed primary abstract Limits: Responses differed by cell line. Nuclear translocation is not proof of universal transcriptional activation; kinase association does not prove direct binding. Primary reference: Betanin, a beetroot component, induces nuclear factor erythroid-2-related factor 2-mediated expression of detoxifying/antioxidant enzymes in human liver cell lines. (2013). https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23769299/ DOI: 10.1017/S0007114513001645
    Complete structured claim and evidence

  15. Betanin reduced lipid hydroperoxide formation during MPO/nitrite-mediated oxidation of human LDL.

    Betanin → Lipid peroxidation source_derived_draftungraded
    Experimental context and source evidence
    dose
    Experimental betanin addition; concentration not specified in accessed abstract
    duration
    Oxidation time courses; duration not specified in accessed abstract
    evidence_access
    Primary PubMed abstract; detailed exposure for PMID 23931157 additionally checked in publisher results. No uninspected full text is claimed.
    evidence_scope
    literature_reviewed; source-derived curation, not universally established human effects
    experimental_model
    Isolated human LDL and MPO/nitrite biochemical system
    limitations
    Oxidation products were not chemically identified; clinical LDL lowering was not tested.
    nutrient_topic
    Betalains collection; each molecular form, species, exposure and preparation remains explicit. · Betalains
    organism
    Isolated human LDL and MPO/nitrite biochemical system
    plain_language
    Betanin reduced lipid hydroperoxide formation during MPO/nitrite-mediated oxidation of human LDL.
    primary_references
    Betanin inhibits the myeloperoxidase/nitrite-induced oxidation of human low-density lipoproteins. (2007). https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17364963/ DOI: 10.1080/10715760601038783
    route
    In vitro addition
    tissue
    LDL lipid compartment

    Betalains: mechanisms, molecular forms and cross-actor connections (2026-09-20) · lines 187–195

    Original AI-assisted curation of twelve primary research papers; study-specific PubMed/DOI links and limitations retained. Not publisher full text. · supports · Isolated human LDL and MPO/nitrite biochemical system · source_derived_draft · unverified_draft

    ## betalains-mpo-ldl Betanin reduced lipid hydroperoxide formation during MPO/nitrite-mediated oxidation of human LDL. Model/species: Isolated human LDL and MPO/nitrite biochemical system Tissue: LDL lipid compartment Exposure: Experimental betanin addition; concentration not specified in accessed abstract Route: In vitro addition Duration: Oxidation time courses; duration not specified in accessed abstract Limits: Oxidation products were not chemically identified; clinical LDL lowering was not tested. Primary reference: Betanin inhibits the myeloperoxidase/nitrite-induced oxidation of human low-density lipoproteins. (2007). https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17364963/ DOI: 10.1080/10715760601038783
    Complete structured claim and evidence

  16. Betanin increased NQO1 transcript and protein abundance in THLE-2 cells.

    Betanin → Human NAD(P)H quinone dehydrogenase 1 / NQO1 source_derived_draftungraded
    Experimental context and source evidence
    dose
    Betanin 2, 10 and 20 micromolar
    duration
    Not specified in accessed primary abstract
    evidence_access
    Primary PubMed abstract; detailed exposure for PMID 23931157 additionally checked in publisher results. No uninspected full text is claimed.
    evidence_scope
    literature_reviewed; source-derived curation, not universally established human effects
    experimental_model
    Human THLE-2 non-tumour liver and HepG2 hepatoma cell lines
    limitations
    Responses differed by cell line. Nuclear translocation is not proof of universal transcriptional activation; kinase association does not prove direct binding.
    nutrient_topic
    Betalains collection; each molecular form, species, exposure and preparation remains explicit. · Betalains
    organism
    Human THLE-2 non-tumour liver and HepG2 hepatoma cell lines
    plain_language
    Betanin increased NQO1 transcript and protein abundance in THLE-2 cells.
    primary_references
    Betanin, a beetroot component, induces nuclear factor erythroid-2-related factor 2-mediated expression of detoxifying/antioxidant enzymes in human liver cell lines. (2013). https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23769299/ DOI: 10.1017/S0007114513001645
    route
    In vitro incubation
    tissue
    Liver-derived cells; cytosol and nucleus

    Betalains: mechanisms, molecular forms and cross-actor connections (2026-09-20) · lines 227–235

    Original AI-assisted curation of twelve primary research papers; study-specific PubMed/DOI links and limitations retained. Not publisher full text. · supports · Human THLE-2 non-tumour liver and HepG2 hepatoma cell lines · source_derived_draft · unverified_draft

    ## betalains-nqo1-expression Betanin increased NQO1 transcript and protein abundance in THLE-2 cells. Model/species: Human THLE-2 non-tumour liver and HepG2 hepatoma cell lines Tissue: Liver-derived cells; cytosol and nucleus Exposure: Betanin 2, 10 and 20 micromolar Route: In vitro incubation Duration: Not specified in accessed primary abstract Limits: Responses differed by cell line. Nuclear translocation is not proof of universal transcriptional activation; kinase association does not prove direct binding. Primary reference: Betanin, a beetroot component, induces nuclear factor erythroid-2-related factor 2-mediated expression of detoxifying/antioxidant enzymes in human liver cell lines. (2013). https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23769299/ DOI: 10.1017/S0007114513001645
    Complete structured claim and evidence

  17. Betanin increased Nrf2 binding to antioxidant response elements in THLE-2 cells; this response was absent in HepG2 cells.

    Betanin → Human Nrf2 / NFE2L2 source_derived_draftungraded
    Experimental context and source evidence
    dose
    Betanin 2, 10 and 20 micromolar
    duration
    Not specified in accessed primary abstract
    evidence_access
    Primary PubMed abstract; detailed exposure for PMID 23931157 additionally checked in publisher results. No uninspected full text is claimed.
    evidence_scope
    literature_reviewed; source-derived curation, not universally established human effects
    experimental_model
    Human THLE-2 non-tumour liver and HepG2 hepatoma cell lines
    limitations
    Responses differed by cell line. Nuclear translocation is not proof of universal transcriptional activation; kinase association does not prove direct binding. Same-study cell-context difference, not a scientific contradiction.
    nutrient_topic
    Betalains collection; each molecular form, species, exposure and preparation remains explicit. · Betalains
    organism
    Human THLE-2 non-tumour liver and HepG2 hepatoma cell lines
    plain_language
    Betanin increased Nrf2 binding to antioxidant response elements in THLE-2 cells; this response was absent in HepG2 cells.
    primary_references
    Betanin, a beetroot component, induces nuclear factor erythroid-2-related factor 2-mediated expression of detoxifying/antioxidant enzymes in human liver cell lines. (2013). https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23769299/ DOI: 10.1017/S0007114513001645
    route
    In vitro incubation
    tissue
    Liver-derived cells; cytosol and nucleus

    Betalains: mechanisms, molecular forms and cross-actor connections (2026-09-20) · lines 217–225

    Original AI-assisted curation of twelve primary research papers; study-specific PubMed/DOI links and limitations retained. Not publisher full text. · supports · Human THLE-2 non-tumour liver and HepG2 hepatoma cell lines · source_derived_draft · unverified_draft

    ## betalains-nrf2-are Betanin increased Nrf2 binding to antioxidant response elements in THLE-2 cells; this response was absent in HepG2 cells. Model/species: Human THLE-2 non-tumour liver and HepG2 hepatoma cell lines Tissue: Liver-derived cells; cytosol and nucleus Exposure: Betanin 2, 10 and 20 micromolar Route: In vitro incubation Duration: Not specified in accessed primary abstract Limits: Responses differed by cell line. Nuclear translocation is not proof of universal transcriptional activation; kinase association does not prove direct binding. Same-study cell-context difference, not a scientific contradiction. Primary reference: Betanin, a beetroot component, induces nuclear factor erythroid-2-related factor 2-mediated expression of detoxifying/antioxidant enzymes in human liver cell lines. (2013). https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23769299/ DOI: 10.1017/S0007114513001645
    Complete structured claim and evidence

  18. Betanin promoted nuclear redistribution of Nrf2 in both THLE-2 and HepG2 cells.

    Betanin → Human Nrf2 / NFE2L2 source_derived_draftungraded
    Experimental context and source evidence
    dose
    Betanin 2, 10 and 20 micromolar
    duration
    Not specified in accessed primary abstract
    evidence_access
    Primary PubMed abstract; detailed exposure for PMID 23931157 additionally checked in publisher results. No uninspected full text is claimed.
    evidence_scope
    literature_reviewed; source-derived curation, not universally established human effects
    experimental_model
    Human THLE-2 non-tumour liver and HepG2 hepatoma cell lines
    limitations
    Responses differed by cell line. Nuclear translocation is not proof of universal transcriptional activation; kinase association does not prove direct binding.
    nutrient_topic
    Betalains collection; each molecular form, species, exposure and preparation remains explicit. · Betalains
    organism
    Human THLE-2 non-tumour liver and HepG2 hepatoma cell lines
    plain_language
    Betanin promoted nuclear redistribution of Nrf2 in both THLE-2 and HepG2 cells.
    primary_references
    Betanin, a beetroot component, induces nuclear factor erythroid-2-related factor 2-mediated expression of detoxifying/antioxidant enzymes in human liver cell lines. (2013). https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23769299/ DOI: 10.1017/S0007114513001645
    route
    In vitro incubation
    tissue
    Liver-derived cells; cytosol and nucleus

    Betalains: mechanisms, molecular forms and cross-actor connections (2026-09-20) · lines 207–215

    Original AI-assisted curation of twelve primary research papers; study-specific PubMed/DOI links and limitations retained. Not publisher full text. · supports · Human THLE-2 non-tumour liver and HepG2 hepatoma cell lines · source_derived_draft · unverified_draft

    ## betalains-nrf2-translocation Betanin promoted nuclear redistribution of Nrf2 in both THLE-2 and HepG2 cells. Model/species: Human THLE-2 non-tumour liver and HepG2 hepatoma cell lines Tissue: Liver-derived cells; cytosol and nucleus Exposure: Betanin 2, 10 and 20 micromolar Route: In vitro incubation Duration: Not specified in accessed primary abstract Limits: Responses differed by cell line. Nuclear translocation is not proof of universal transcriptional activation; kinase association does not prove direct binding. Primary reference: Betanin, a beetroot component, induces nuclear factor erythroid-2-related factor 2-mediated expression of detoxifying/antioxidant enzymes in human liver cell lines. (2013). https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23769299/ DOI: 10.1017/S0007114513001645
    Complete structured claim and evidence

Where it participates (unsigned role)

  1. Betanin was undetectable at all sampled plasma time points after beetroot juice or whole beetroot in this crossover study.

    Beetroot juice and whole beetroot in the 2017 pharmacokinetic study → Human plasma betanin exposure source_derived_draftungraded
    Experimental context and source evidence
    dose
    250 mL beetroot juice or 300 g whole beetroot versus placebo
    duration
    Baseline and 1, 2, 3, 5 and 8 h
    evidence_access
    Primary PubMed abstract; detailed exposure for PMID 23931157 additionally checked in publisher results. No uninspected full text is claimed.
    evidence_scope
    literature_reviewed; source-derived curation, not universally established human effects
    experimental_model
    Ten healthy men in a randomized crossover study
    limitations
    An undetectable parent compound is not proof of zero absorption. Food matrix, degradation and analytical methods differ from the cactus pear study. NOx is not itself a measurement of a betanin mechanism.
    nutrient_topic
    Betalains collection; each molecular form, species, exposure and preparation remains explicit. · Betalains
    organism
    Ten healthy men in a randomized crossover study
    plain_language
    Betanin was undetectable at all sampled plasma time points after beetroot juice or whole beetroot in this crossover study.
    primary_references
    The plasma bioavailability of nitrate and betanin from Beta vulgaris rubra in humans. (2017). https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26873098/ DOI: 10.1007/s00394-016-1173-5
    route
    Oral food/drink
    tissue
    Venous plasma

    Betalains: mechanisms, molecular forms and cross-actor connections (2026-09-20) · lines 527–535

    Original AI-assisted curation of twelve primary research papers; study-specific PubMed/DOI links and limitations retained. Not publisher full text. · supports · Ten healthy men in a randomized crossover study · source_derived_draft · unverified_draft

    ## betalains-beetroot-pk-null Betanin was undetectable at all sampled plasma time points after beetroot juice or whole beetroot in this crossover study. Model/species: Ten healthy men in a randomized crossover study Tissue: Venous plasma Exposure: 250 mL beetroot juice or 300 g whole beetroot versus placebo Route: Oral food/drink Duration: Baseline and 1, 2, 3, 5 and 8 h Limits: An undetectable parent compound is not proof of zero absorption. Food matrix, degradation and analytical methods differ from the cactus pear study. NOx is not itself a measurement of a betanin mechanism. Primary reference: The plasma bioavailability of nitrate and betanin from Beta vulgaris rubra in humans. (2017). https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26873098/ DOI: 10.1007/s00394-016-1173-5
    Complete structured claim and evidence

  2. After cactus pear ingestion, plasma betanin peaked at 3 h and was undetectable by 12 h.

    Cactus pear pulp in the 2004 betalain pharmacokinetic study → Human plasma betanin exposure source_derived_draftungraded
    Experimental context and source evidence
    dose
    Single 500 g cactus pear pulp meal: 28 mg indicaxanthin and 16 mg betanin
    duration
    Plasma/urine followed for 12 h
    evidence_access
    Primary PubMed abstract; detailed exposure for PMID 23931157 additionally checked in publisher results. No uninspected full text is claimed.
    evidence_scope
    literature_reviewed; source-derived curation, not universally established human effects
    experimental_model
    Eight healthy human volunteers
    limitations
    Whole-food exposure cannot attribute the LDL response exclusively to either pigment; urinary recovery is not absolute absorption.
    nutrient_topic
    Betalains collection; each molecular form, species, exposure and preparation remains explicit. · Betalains
    organism
    Eight healthy human volunteers
    plain_language
    After cactus pear ingestion, plasma betanin peaked at 3 h and was undetectable by 12 h.
    primary_references
    Absorption, excretion, and distribution of dietary antioxidant betalains in LDLs: potential health effects of betalains in humans. (2004). https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15447903/ DOI: 10.1093/ajcn/80.4.941
    route
    Oral whole food
    tissue
    Plasma, urine and isolated LDL

    Betalains: mechanisms, molecular forms and cross-actor connections (2026-09-20) · lines 497–505

    Original AI-assisted curation of twelve primary research papers; study-specific PubMed/DOI links and limitations retained. Not publisher full text. · supports · Eight healthy human volunteers · source_derived_draft · unverified_draft

    ## betalains-betanin-human-pk After cactus pear ingestion, plasma betanin peaked at 3 h and was undetectable by 12 h. Model/species: Eight healthy human volunteers Tissue: Plasma, urine and isolated LDL Exposure: Single 500 g cactus pear pulp meal: 28 mg indicaxanthin and 16 mg betanin Route: Oral whole food Duration: Plasma/urine followed for 12 h Limits: Whole-food exposure cannot attribute the LDL response exclusively to either pigment; urinary recovery is not absolute absorption. Primary reference: Absorption, excretion, and distribution of dietary antioxidant betalains in LDLs: potential health effects of betalains in humans. (2004). https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15447903/ DOI: 10.1093/ajcn/80.4.941
    Complete structured claim and evidence

  3. LDL isolated 3 and 5 h after cactus pear ingestion resisted ex vivo oxidation more strongly; LDL vitamin E and beta-carotene levels were unchanged.

    Cactus pear pulp in the 2004 betalain pharmacokinetic study → Copper-driven LDL oxidation source_derived_draftungraded
    Experimental context and source evidence
    dose
    Single 500 g cactus pear pulp meal: 28 mg indicaxanthin and 16 mg betanin
    duration
    Plasma/urine followed for 12 h
    evidence_access
    Primary PubMed abstract; detailed exposure for PMID 23931157 additionally checked in publisher results. No uninspected full text is claimed.
    evidence_scope
    literature_reviewed; source-derived curation, not universally established human effects
    experimental_model
    Eight healthy human volunteers
    limitations
    Whole-food exposure cannot attribute the LDL response exclusively to either pigment; urinary recovery is not absolute absorption.
    nutrient_topic
    Betalains collection; each molecular form, species, exposure and preparation remains explicit. · Betalains
    organism
    Eight healthy human volunteers
    plain_language
    LDL isolated 3 and 5 h after cactus pear ingestion resisted ex vivo oxidation more strongly; LDL vitamin E and beta-carotene levels were unchanged.
    primary_references
    Absorption, excretion, and distribution of dietary antioxidant betalains in LDLs: potential health effects of betalains in humans. (2004). https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15447903/ DOI: 10.1093/ajcn/80.4.941
    route
    Oral whole food
    tissue
    Plasma, urine and isolated LDL

    Betalains: mechanisms, molecular forms and cross-actor connections (2026-09-20) · lines 517–525

    Original AI-assisted curation of twelve primary research papers; study-specific PubMed/DOI links and limitations retained. Not publisher full text. · supports · Eight healthy human volunteers · source_derived_draft · unverified_draft

    ## betalains-human-food-ldl LDL isolated 3 and 5 h after cactus pear ingestion resisted ex vivo oxidation more strongly; LDL vitamin E and beta-carotene levels were unchanged. Model/species: Eight healthy human volunteers Tissue: Plasma, urine and isolated LDL Exposure: Single 500 g cactus pear pulp meal: 28 mg indicaxanthin and 16 mg betanin Route: Oral whole food Duration: Plasma/urine followed for 12 h Limits: Whole-food exposure cannot attribute the LDL response exclusively to either pigment; urinary recovery is not absolute absorption. Primary reference: Absorption, excretion, and distribution of dietary antioxidant betalains in LDLs: potential health effects of betalains in humans. (2004). https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15447903/ DOI: 10.1093/ajcn/80.4.941
    Complete structured claim and evidence

  4. Unidentified products generated by MPO/nitrite oxidation of betanin also inhibited LDL oxidation in the assay.

    Unidentified betanin oxidation products in the MPO/nitrite assay → Lipid peroxidation source_derived_draftungraded
    Experimental context and source evidence
    dose
    Experimental betanin addition; concentration not specified in accessed abstract
    duration
    Oxidation time courses; duration not specified in accessed abstract
    evidence_access
    Primary PubMed abstract; detailed exposure for PMID 23931157 additionally checked in publisher results. No uninspected full text is claimed.
    evidence_scope
    literature_reviewed; source-derived curation, not universally established human effects
    experimental_model
    Isolated human LDL and MPO/nitrite biochemical system
    limitations
    Oxidation products were not chemically identified; clinical LDL lowering was not tested.
    nutrient_topic
    Betalains collection; each molecular form, species, exposure and preparation remains explicit. · Betalains
    organism
    Isolated human LDL and MPO/nitrite biochemical system
    plain_language
    Unidentified products generated by MPO/nitrite oxidation of betanin also inhibited LDL oxidation in the assay.
    primary_references
    Betanin inhibits the myeloperoxidase/nitrite-induced oxidation of human low-density lipoproteins. (2007). https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17364963/ DOI: 10.1080/10715760601038783
    route
    In vitro addition
    tissue
    LDL lipid compartment

    Betalains: mechanisms, molecular forms and cross-actor connections (2026-09-20) · lines 197–205

    Original AI-assisted curation of twelve primary research papers; study-specific PubMed/DOI links and limitations retained. Not publisher full text. · supports · Isolated human LDL and MPO/nitrite biochemical system · source_derived_draft · unverified_draft

    ## betalains-oxidation-products Unidentified products generated by MPO/nitrite oxidation of betanin also inhibited LDL oxidation in the assay. Model/species: Isolated human LDL and MPO/nitrite biochemical system Tissue: LDL lipid compartment Exposure: Experimental betanin addition; concentration not specified in accessed abstract Route: In vitro addition Duration: Oxidation time courses; duration not specified in accessed abstract Limits: Oxidation products were not chemically identified; clinical LDL lowering was not tested. Primary reference: Betanin inhibits the myeloperoxidase/nitrite-induced oxidation of human low-density lipoproteins. (2007). https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17364963/ DOI: 10.1080/10715760601038783
    Complete structured claim and evidence

In the sources

Preserved passages that mention this component, quoted exactly. Open one to read it in context.

    This is a research prototype built from draft material. It is not medical advice, and its statements still await verification against the original studies.

    Evidence, AI assistance and curation standards