Nutrient chapter

Bromelain

A compositionally variable mixture of cysteine proteases and associated pineapple-stem proteins; activity units and preparation matter. It is not one pure enzyme.

12 recorded mechanisms · 1 availability situations · 1 preserved sources. Draft and verified records are labeled separately.

Read recorded mechanisms Open recursive mind map

The mechanisms

What the sources say this nutrient does, one relationship at a time. Plain wording comes first; the technical statement follows.

  1. After oral bromelain in 19 healthy men, immunoreactive bromelain with retained proteolytic activity was detected in plasma; the estimated half-life was 6-9 hours.

    Bromelain → Intact, immunoreactive bromelain in human plasma source_derived_draftungraded
    Experimental context and source evidence
    dose
    Oral multidosing up to 3 g/day
    duration
    Plasma sampling across 3-51 hours
    evidence_access
    Primary PubMed abstract and indexed metadata reviewed. Full-text method details not stated here remain unresolved.
    evidence_scope
    literature_reviewed; model-specific source-derived curation
    experimental_model
    Nineteen healthy adult men
    limitations
    Only a small absorbed fraction was detected; immunoreactivity and partial activity do not establish a free therapeutic plasma concentration.
    nutrient_topic
    Bromelain chapter; interacting nutrients, drugs, peptides and proteins retain their experimental settings. · Bromelain
    organism
    Nineteen healthy adult men
    plain_language
    After oral bromelain in 19 healthy men, immunoreactive bromelain with retained proteolytic activity was detected in plasma; the estimated half-life was 6-9 hours.
    primary_references
    Intestinal absorption of undegraded proteins in men: presence of bromelain in plasma after oral intake. (1997). https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9252520/ DOI: 10.1152/ajpgi.1997.273.1.G139
    route
    Oral
    tissue
    Plasma immunoassay, immunoprecipitation and proteolytic activity

    Bromelain: mechanism of action and interactions (2026-09-20) · lines 11–20

    Original AI-assisted source-specific curation with primary-study citations, model, exposure, route, duration, negative findings and limitations preserved. Not publisher full text. · supports · Nineteen healthy adult men · source_derived_draft · unverified_draft

    ## bromelain-oral-absorption After oral bromelain in 19 healthy men, immunoreactive bromelain with retained proteolytic activity was detected in plasma; the estimated half-life was 6-9 hours. Model/species: Nineteen healthy adult men Tissue/system: Plasma immunoassay, immunoprecipitation and proteolytic activity Exposure: Oral multidosing up to 3 g/day Route: Oral Duration: Plasma sampling across 3-51 hours Limits: Only a small absorbed fraction was detected; immunoreactivity and partial activity do not establish a free therapeutic plasma concentration. Primary reference: Intestinal absorption of undegraded proteins in men: presence of bromelain in plasma after oral intake. (1997). https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9252520/ DOI: 10.1152/ajpgi.1997.273.1.G139 Access: Primary PubMed abstract and indexed metadata reviewed. Full-text method details not stated here remain unresolved.
    Complete structured claim and evidence

  2. Circulating bromelain was found associated with human alpha-2-macroglobulin after oral dosing.

    Bromelain → Human alpha-2-macroglobulin / A2M source_derived_draftungraded
    Experimental context and source evidence
    dose
    Oral bromelain up to 3 g/day
    duration
    3-51 hours
    evidence_access
    Primary PubMed abstract and indexed metadata reviewed. Full-text method details not stated here remain unresolved.
    evidence_scope
    literature_reviewed; model-specific source-derived curation
    experimental_model
    Healthy adult men
    limitations
    Association can alter activity and clearance; the study did not quantify free versus inhibitor-bound enzyme.
    nutrient_topic
    Bromelain chapter; interacting nutrients, drugs, peptides and proteins retain their experimental settings. · Bromelain
    organism
    Healthy adult men
    plain_language
    Circulating bromelain was found associated with human alpha-2-macroglobulin after oral dosing.
    primary_references
    Intestinal absorption of undegraded proteins in men: presence of bromelain in plasma after oral intake. (1997). https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9252520/ DOI: 10.1152/ajpgi.1997.273.1.G139
    route
    Oral
    tissue
    Plasma protein association

    Bromelain: mechanism of action and interactions (2026-09-20) · lines 22–31

    Original AI-assisted source-specific curation with primary-study citations, model, exposure, route, duration, negative findings and limitations preserved. Not publisher full text. · supports · Healthy adult men · source_derived_draft · unverified_draft

    ## bromelain-alpha2m-binding Circulating bromelain was found associated with human alpha-2-macroglobulin after oral dosing. Model/species: Healthy adult men Tissue/system: Plasma protein association Exposure: Oral bromelain up to 3 g/day Route: Oral Duration: 3-51 hours Limits: Association can alter activity and clearance; the study did not quantify free versus inhibitor-bound enzyme. Primary reference: Intestinal absorption of undegraded proteins in men: presence of bromelain in plasma after oral intake. (1997). https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9252520/ DOI: 10.1152/ajpgi.1997.273.1.G139 Access: Primary PubMed abstract and indexed metadata reviewed. Full-text method details not stated here remain unresolved.
    Complete structured claim and evidence

  3. Bromelain removed CXCR1/CXCR2 from human neutrophils and reduced IL-8-directed migration by about 40%.

    Bromelain → Human CXCR1/CXCR2 chemokine receptors source_derived_draftungraded
    Experimental context and source evidence
    dose
    In-vitro bromelain treatment; in-vivo preparation specified in the primary study
    duration
    Acute
    evidence_access
    Primary PubMed abstract and indexed metadata reviewed. Full-text method details not stated here remain unresolved.
    evidence_scope
    literature_reviewed; model-specific source-derived curation
    experimental_model
    Isolated human neutrophils; three murine inflammation models
    limitations
    The effect was stimulus-selective and does not imply global suppression of neutrophil migration or human clinical efficacy.
    nutrient_topic
    Bromelain chapter; interacting nutrients, drugs, peptides and proteins retain their experimental settings. · Bromelain
    organism
    Isolated human neutrophils; three murine inflammation models
    plain_language
    Bromelain removed CXCR1/CXCR2 from human neutrophils and reduced IL-8-directed migration by about 40%.
    primary_references
    Bromelain treatment decreases neutrophil migration to sites of inflammation. (2008). https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18482869/ DOI: 10.1016/j.clim.2008.02.015
    route
    In vitro and in vivo
    tissue
    Chemokine-receptor surface expression and chemotaxis

    Bromelain: mechanism of action and interactions (2026-09-20) · lines 33–42

    Original AI-assisted source-specific curation with primary-study citations, model, exposure, route, duration, negative findings and limitations preserved. Not publisher full text. · supports · Isolated human neutrophils; three murine inflammation models · source_derived_draft · unverified_draft

    ## bromelain-neutrophil-cxcr Bromelain removed CXCR1/CXCR2 from human neutrophils and reduced IL-8-directed migration by about 40%. Model/species: Isolated human neutrophils; three murine inflammation models Tissue/system: Chemokine-receptor surface expression and chemotaxis Exposure: In-vitro bromelain treatment; in-vivo preparation specified in the primary study Route: In vitro and in vivo Duration: Acute Limits: The effect was stimulus-selective and does not imply global suppression of neutrophil migration or human clinical efficacy. Primary reference: Bromelain treatment decreases neutrophil migration to sites of inflammation. (2008). https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18482869/ DOI: 10.1016/j.clim.2008.02.015 Access: Primary PubMed abstract and indexed metadata reviewed. Full-text method details not stated here remain unresolved.
    Complete structured claim and evidence

  4. The same bromelain treatment did not reduce human neutrophil migration toward fMLP.

    Bromelain → Human neutrophil chemotaxis toward fMLP source_derived_draftungraded
    Experimental context and source evidence
    dose
    Bromelain pretreatment followed by fMLP
    duration
    Acute
    evidence_access
    Primary PubMed abstract and indexed metadata reviewed. Full-text method details not stated here remain unresolved.
    evidence_scope
    literature_reviewed; model-specific source-derived curation
    experimental_model
    Isolated human neutrophils
    limitations
    This null result limits the mechanism to selected surface receptors; it does not prove every non-IL-8 chemotactic route is intact.
    nutrient_topic
    Bromelain chapter; interacting nutrients, drugs, peptides and proteins retain their experimental settings. · Bromelain
    organism
    Isolated human neutrophils
    plain_language
    The same bromelain treatment did not reduce human neutrophil migration toward fMLP.
    primary_references
    Bromelain treatment decreases neutrophil migration to sites of inflammation. (2008). https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18482869/ DOI: 10.1016/j.clim.2008.02.015
    route
    In vitro
    tissue
    Stimulus-specific chemotaxis

    Bromelain: mechanism of action and interactions (2026-09-20) · lines 44–53

    Original AI-assisted source-specific curation with primary-study citations, model, exposure, route, duration, negative findings and limitations preserved. Not publisher full text. · supports · Isolated human neutrophils · source_derived_draft · unverified_draft

    ## bromelain-fmlp-null The same bromelain treatment did not reduce human neutrophil migration toward fMLP. Model/species: Isolated human neutrophils Tissue/system: Stimulus-specific chemotaxis Exposure: Bromelain pretreatment followed by fMLP Route: In vitro Duration: Acute Limits: This null result limits the mechanism to selected surface receptors; it does not prove every non-IL-8 chemotactic route is intact. Primary reference: Bromelain treatment decreases neutrophil migration to sites of inflammation. (2008). https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18482869/ DOI: 10.1016/j.clim.2008.02.015 Access: Primary PubMed abstract and indexed metadata reviewed. Full-text method details not stated here remain unresolved.
    Complete structured claim and evidence

  5. Bromelain reduced surface CD25 on activated human CD4 T cells while soluble CD25 increased, supporting proteolytic shedding.

    Bromelain → Human interleukin-2 receptor alpha / CD25 source_derived_draftungraded
    Experimental context and source evidence
    dose
    Bromelain 25-100 micrograms/mL
    duration
    Up to 8 hours
    evidence_access
    Primary PubMed abstract and indexed metadata reviewed. Full-text method details not stated here remain unresolved.
    evidence_scope
    literature_reviewed; model-specific source-derived curation
    experimental_model
    Anti-CD3-activated human CD4 T cells
    limitations
    Receptor shedding in activated cells does not establish the net immune effect after oral use.
    nutrient_topic
    Bromelain chapter; interacting nutrients, drugs, peptides and proteins retain their experimental settings. · Bromelain
    organism
    Anti-CD3-activated human CD4 T cells
    plain_language
    Bromelain reduced surface CD25 on activated human CD4 T cells while soluble CD25 increased, supporting proteolytic shedding.
    primary_references
    Bromelain treatment reduces CD25 expression on activated CD4+ T cells in vitro. (2009). https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19162239/ DOI: 10.1016/j.intimp.2008.12.012
    route
    In vitro
    tissue
    Surface and soluble CD25

    Bromelain: mechanism of action and interactions (2026-09-20) · lines 55–64

    Original AI-assisted source-specific curation with primary-study citations, model, exposure, route, duration, negative findings and limitations preserved. Not publisher full text. · supports · Anti-CD3-activated human CD4 T cells · source_derived_draft · unverified_draft

    ## bromelain-cd25-cleavage Bromelain reduced surface CD25 on activated human CD4 T cells while soluble CD25 increased, supporting proteolytic shedding. Model/species: Anti-CD3-activated human CD4 T cells Tissue/system: Surface and soluble CD25 Exposure: Bromelain 25-100 micrograms/mL Route: In vitro Duration: Up to 8 hours Limits: Receptor shedding in activated cells does not establish the net immune effect after oral use. Primary reference: Bromelain treatment reduces CD25 expression on activated CD4+ T cells in vitro. (2009). https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19162239/ DOI: 10.1016/j.intimp.2008.12.012 Access: Primary PubMed abstract and indexed metadata reviewed. Full-text method details not stated here remain unresolved.
    Complete structured claim and evidence

  6. E64 prevented the bromelain-associated reduction of CD25, showing that the effect required cysteine-protease activity under these conditions.

    E64 cysteine-protease inhibitor → Human interleukin-2 receptor alpha / CD25 source_derived_draftungraded
    Experimental context and source evidence
    availability_state
    machinery_impairment Imported condition classification; unverified.
    dose
    E64 with bromelain
    duration
    Up to 8 hours
    evidence_access
    Primary PubMed abstract and indexed metadata reviewed. Full-text method details not stated here remain unresolved.
    evidence_scope
    literature_reviewed; model-specific source-derived curation
    experimental_model
    Anti-CD3-activated human CD4 T cells
    limitations
    E64 is an experimental inhibitor; this is a mechanism control, not a treatment comparison.
    nutrient_topic
    Bromelain chapter; interacting nutrients, drugs, peptides and proteins retain their experimental settings. · Bromelain
    organism
    Anti-CD3-activated human CD4 T cells
    plain_language
    E64 prevented the bromelain-associated reduction of CD25, showing that the effect required cysteine-protease activity under these conditions.
    primary_references
    Bromelain treatment reduces CD25 expression on activated CD4+ T cells in vitro. (2009). https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19162239/ DOI: 10.1016/j.intimp.2008.12.012
    route
    In vitro co-exposure
    tissue
    Protease-dependence control
    trigger_kind
    machinery_impairment Imported condition classification; unverified.

    Bromelain: mechanism of action and interactions (2026-09-20) · lines 66–75

    Original AI-assisted source-specific curation with primary-study citations, model, exposure, route, duration, negative findings and limitations preserved. Not publisher full text. · supports · Anti-CD3-activated human CD4 T cells · source_derived_draft · unverified_draft

    ## bromelain-e64-dependence E64 prevented the bromelain-associated reduction of CD25, showing that the effect required cysteine-protease activity under these conditions. Model/species: Anti-CD3-activated human CD4 T cells Tissue/system: Protease-dependence control Exposure: E64 with bromelain Route: In vitro co-exposure Duration: Up to 8 hours Limits: E64 is an experimental inhibitor; this is a mechanism control, not a treatment comparison. Primary reference: Bromelain treatment reduces CD25 expression on activated CD4+ T cells in vitro. (2009). https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19162239/ DOI: 10.1016/j.intimp.2008.12.012 Access: Primary PubMed abstract and indexed metadata reviewed. Full-text method details not stated here remain unresolved.
    Complete structured claim and evidence

  7. Bromelain dose-dependently blocked Salmonella Typhimurium-induced ERK1/2 and JNK activation in human Caco-2 cells.

    Bromelain → Salmonella-induced ERK/JNK activation in Caco-2 cells source_derived_draftungraded
    Experimental context and source evidence
    dose
    Bromelain with Salmonella Typhimurium
    duration
    Acute infection assay
    evidence_access
    Primary PubMed abstract and indexed metadata reviewed. Full-text method details not stated here remain unresolved.
    evidence_scope
    literature_reviewed; model-specific source-derived curation
    experimental_model
    Human Caco-2 intestinal epithelial cells
    limitations
    Blocking these kinase signals did not prevent invasion or barrier-resistance loss in the same study.
    nutrient_topic
    Bromelain chapter; interacting nutrients, drugs, peptides and proteins retain their experimental settings. · Bromelain
    organism
    Human Caco-2 intestinal epithelial cells
    plain_language
    Bromelain dose-dependently blocked Salmonella Typhimurium-induced ERK1/2 and JNK activation in human Caco-2 cells.
    primary_references
    Proteolytic inhibition of Salmonella enterica serovar typhimurium-induced activation of the mitogen-activated protein kinases ERK and JNK in cultured human intestinal cells. (2002). https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11748167/ DOI: 10.1128/IAI.70.1.86-95.2002
    route
    In vitro
    tissue
    ERK1/2 and JNK phosphorylation

    Bromelain: mechanism of action and interactions (2026-09-20) · lines 77–86

    Original AI-assisted source-specific curation with primary-study citations, model, exposure, route, duration, negative findings and limitations preserved. Not publisher full text. · supports · Human Caco-2 intestinal epithelial cells · source_derived_draft · unverified_draft

    ## bromelain-mapk-blockade Bromelain dose-dependently blocked Salmonella Typhimurium-induced ERK1/2 and JNK activation in human Caco-2 cells. Model/species: Human Caco-2 intestinal epithelial cells Tissue/system: ERK1/2 and JNK phosphorylation Exposure: Bromelain with Salmonella Typhimurium Route: In vitro Duration: Acute infection assay Limits: Blocking these kinase signals did not prevent invasion or barrier-resistance loss in the same study. Primary reference: Proteolytic inhibition of Salmonella enterica serovar typhimurium-induced activation of the mitogen-activated protein kinases ERK and JNK in cultured human intestinal cells. (2002). https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11748167/ DOI: 10.1128/IAI.70.1.86-95.2002 Access: Primary PubMed abstract and indexed metadata reviewed. Full-text method details not stated here remain unresolved.
    Complete structured claim and evidence

  8. Despite blocking ERK/JNK activation, bromelain did not prevent Salmonella invasion or the fall in Caco-2 monolayer resistance.

    Bromelain → Salmonella invasion and barrier-resistance loss in Caco-2 monolayers source_derived_draftungraded
    Experimental context and source evidence
    dose
    Bromelain with Salmonella Typhimurium
    duration
    Acute infection assay
    evidence_access
    Primary PubMed abstract and indexed metadata reviewed. Full-text method details not stated here remain unresolved.
    evidence_scope
    literature_reviewed; model-specific source-derived curation
    experimental_model
    Human Caco-2 intestinal epithelial cells
    limitations
    This null finding prevents kinase inhibition from being presented as protection against infection or barrier injury.
    nutrient_topic
    Bromelain chapter; interacting nutrients, drugs, peptides and proteins retain their experimental settings. · Bromelain
    organism
    Human Caco-2 intestinal epithelial cells
    plain_language
    Despite blocking ERK/JNK activation, bromelain did not prevent Salmonella invasion or the fall in Caco-2 monolayer resistance.
    primary_references
    Proteolytic inhibition of Salmonella enterica serovar typhimurium-induced activation of the mitogen-activated protein kinases ERK and JNK in cultured human intestinal cells. (2002). https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11748167/ DOI: 10.1128/IAI.70.1.86-95.2002
    route
    In vitro
    tissue
    Bacterial invasion and transepithelial resistance

    Bromelain: mechanism of action and interactions (2026-09-20) · lines 88–97

    Original AI-assisted source-specific curation with primary-study citations, model, exposure, route, duration, negative findings and limitations preserved. Not publisher full text. · supports · Human Caco-2 intestinal epithelial cells · source_derived_draft · unverified_draft

    ## bromelain-salmonella-outcome-null Despite blocking ERK/JNK activation, bromelain did not prevent Salmonella invasion or the fall in Caco-2 monolayer resistance. Model/species: Human Caco-2 intestinal epithelial cells Tissue/system: Bacterial invasion and transepithelial resistance Exposure: Bromelain with Salmonella Typhimurium Route: In vitro Duration: Acute infection assay Limits: This null finding prevents kinase inhibition from being presented as protection against infection or barrier injury. Primary reference: Proteolytic inhibition of Salmonella enterica serovar typhimurium-induced activation of the mitogen-activated protein kinases ERK and JNK in cultured human intestinal cells. (2002). https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11748167/ DOI: 10.1128/IAI.70.1.86-95.2002 Access: Primary PubMed abstract and indexed metadata reviewed. Full-text method details not stated here remain unresolved.
    Complete structured claim and evidence

  9. A single-dose placebo-controlled crossover trial found a significant shift in the IFN-gamma circadian profile after 3000 FIP units of oral bromelain.

    Bromelain → IFN-gamma circadian response in stimulated human whole blood source_derived_draftungraded
    Experimental context and source evidence
    dose
    Single oral dose; high dose 3000 FIP units
    duration
    Circadian sampling after one dose
    evidence_access
    Primary PubMed abstract and indexed metadata reviewed. Full-text method details not stated here remain unresolved.
    evidence_scope
    literature_reviewed; model-specific source-derived curation
    experimental_model
    Healthy human volunteers in a three-way crossover trial
    limitations
    The clinical relevance and effect in a diseased immune system were not established; IL-5 and IL-10 findings were trends.
    nutrient_topic
    Bromelain chapter; interacting nutrients, drugs, peptides and proteins retain their experimental settings. · Bromelain
    organism
    Healthy human volunteers in a three-way crossover trial
    plain_language
    A single-dose placebo-controlled crossover trial found a significant shift in the IFN-gamma circadian profile after 3000 FIP units of oral bromelain.
    primary_references
    Placebo-controlled randomized clinical trial on the immunomodulating activities of low- and high-dose bromelain after oral administration - new evidence on the antiinflammatory mode of action of bromelain. (2013). https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22517542/ DOI: 10.1002/ptr.4678
    route
    Oral
    tissue
    Ex-vivo stimulated whole-blood cytokine profiles

    Bromelain: mechanism of action and interactions (2026-09-20) · lines 99–108

    Original AI-assisted source-specific curation with primary-study citations, model, exposure, route, duration, negative findings and limitations preserved. Not publisher full text. · supports · Healthy human volunteers in a three-way crossover trial · source_derived_draft · unverified_draft

    ## bromelain-human-cytokine-shift A single-dose placebo-controlled crossover trial found a significant shift in the IFN-gamma circadian profile after 3000 FIP units of oral bromelain. Model/species: Healthy human volunteers in a three-way crossover trial Tissue/system: Ex-vivo stimulated whole-blood cytokine profiles Exposure: Single oral dose; high dose 3000 FIP units Route: Oral Duration: Circadian sampling after one dose Limits: The clinical relevance and effect in a diseased immune system were not established; IL-5 and IL-10 findings were trends. Primary reference: Placebo-controlled randomized clinical trial on the immunomodulating activities of low- and high-dose bromelain after oral administration - new evidence on the antiinflammatory mode of action of bromelain. (2013). https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22517542/ DOI: 10.1002/ptr.4678 Access: Primary PubMed abstract and indexed metadata reviewed. Full-text method details not stated here remain unresolved.
    Complete structured claim and evidence

  10. Adding bromelain ex vivo reduced coagulability, prolonged PT/APTT, and reduced ADP-induced platelet aggregation in human blood samples.

    Bromelain → Human whole-blood coagulability measured by thromboelastography source_derived_draftungraded
    Experimental context and source evidence
    dose
    Bromelain 0.4 U/mL
    duration
    Acute
    evidence_access
    Primary PubMed abstract and indexed metadata reviewed. Full-text method details not stated here remain unresolved.
    evidence_scope
    literature_reviewed; model-specific source-derived curation
    experimental_model
    Human normal and hypercoagulable blood samples
    limitations
    Neither oral nor intravenous exposure was tested; the small mouse experiment showed a nonsignificant trend toward hypercoagulability after intraperitoneal dosing.
    nutrient_topic
    Bromelain chapter; interacting nutrients, drugs, peptides and proteins retain their experimental settings. · Bromelain
    organism
    Human normal and hypercoagulable blood samples
    plain_language
    Adding bromelain ex vivo reduced coagulability, prolonged PT/APTT, and reduced ADP-induced platelet aggregation in human blood samples.
    primary_references
    Bromelain has paradoxical effects on blood coagulability: a study using thromboelastography. (2016). https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25517253/ DOI: 10.1097/MBC.0000000000000244
    route
    Ex vivo addition
    tissue
    Thromboelastography, PT, APTT and platelet aggregation

    Bromelain: mechanism of action and interactions (2026-09-20) · lines 110–119

    Original AI-assisted source-specific curation with primary-study citations, model, exposure, route, duration, negative findings and limitations preserved. Not publisher full text. · supports · Human normal and hypercoagulable blood samples · source_derived_draft · unverified_draft

    ## bromelain-exvivo-coagulation Adding bromelain ex vivo reduced coagulability, prolonged PT/APTT, and reduced ADP-induced platelet aggregation in human blood samples. Model/species: Human normal and hypercoagulable blood samples Tissue/system: Thromboelastography, PT, APTT and platelet aggregation Exposure: Bromelain 0.4 U/mL Route: Ex vivo addition Duration: Acute Limits: Neither oral nor intravenous exposure was tested; the small mouse experiment showed a nonsignificant trend toward hypercoagulability after intraperitoneal dosing. Primary reference: Bromelain has paradoxical effects on blood coagulability: a study using thromboelastography. (2016). https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25517253/ DOI: 10.1097/MBC.0000000000000244 Access: Primary PubMed abstract and indexed metadata reviewed. Full-text method details not stated here remain unresolved.
    Complete structured claim and evidence

  11. Bromelain fractions II and III had both proteolytic and platelet-aggregation-inhibitory activity, and oxidation with sodium tetrathionate abolished both activities.

    Bromelain → Human platelet aggregation, agonist specified source_derived_draftungraded
    Experimental context and source evidence
    dose
    Purified bromelain fractions with or without oxidation
    duration
    Acute
    evidence_access
    Primary PubMed abstract and indexed metadata reviewed. Full-text method details not stated here remain unresolved.
    evidence_scope
    literature_reviewed; model-specific source-derived curation
    experimental_model
    Fractionated commercial bromelain and platelet assays
    limitations
    The experiment links activities but did not identify the platelet substrate or establish an oral antithrombotic dose.
    nutrient_topic
    Bromelain chapter; interacting nutrients, drugs, peptides and proteins retain their experimental settings. · Bromelain
    organism
    Fractionated commercial bromelain and platelet assays
    plain_language
    Bromelain fractions II and III had both proteolytic and platelet-aggregation-inhibitory activity, and oxidation with sodium tetrathionate abolished both activities.
    primary_references
    Chromatographic fractionation and characterization of the active platelet aggregation inhibitory factor from bromelain. (1979). https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/485732/
    route
    In vitro
    tissue
    Protease activity and platelet aggregation

    Bromelain: mechanism of action and interactions (2026-09-20) · lines 121–130

    Original AI-assisted source-specific curation with primary-study citations, model, exposure, route, duration, negative findings and limitations preserved. Not publisher full text. · supports · Fractionated commercial bromelain and platelet assays · source_derived_draft · unverified_draft

    ## bromelain-protease-platelet-link Bromelain fractions II and III had both proteolytic and platelet-aggregation-inhibitory activity, and oxidation with sodium tetrathionate abolished both activities. Model/species: Fractionated commercial bromelain and platelet assays Tissue/system: Protease activity and platelet aggregation Exposure: Purified bromelain fractions with or without oxidation Route: In vitro Duration: Acute Limits: The experiment links activities but did not identify the platelet substrate or establish an oral antithrombotic dose. Primary reference: Chromatographic fractionation and characterization of the active platelet aggregation inhibitory factor from bromelain. (1979). https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/485732/ Access: Primary PubMed abstract and indexed metadata reviewed. Full-text method details not stated here remain unresolved.
    Complete structured claim and evidence

  12. In 68 adults with diabetes, 1050 mg/day bromelain for 12 weeks did not significantly improve fibrinogen, lipids, blood pressure, glucose, C-reactive protein, or anthropometric measures versus placebo.

    Bromelain → Cardiovascular risk markers in adults with diabetes source_derived_draftungraded
    Experimental context and source evidence
    dose
    Bromelain 1050 mg/day
    duration
    12 weeks
    evidence_access
    Primary PubMed abstract and indexed metadata reviewed. Full-text method details not stated here remain unresolved.
    evidence_scope
    literature_reviewed; model-specific source-derived curation
    experimental_model
    Sixty-eight Chinese adults with diabetes and at least one cardiovascular risk factor
    limitations
    Baseline fibrinogen differed despite randomization; the result is a clinical null for the tested dose and population, not proof of no effect in every setting.
    nutrient_topic
    Bromelain chapter; interacting nutrients, drugs, peptides and proteins retain their experimental settings. · Bromelain
    organism
    Sixty-eight Chinese adults with diabetes and at least one cardiovascular risk factor
    plain_language
    In 68 adults with diabetes, 1050 mg/day bromelain for 12 weeks did not significantly improve fibrinogen, lipids, blood pressure, glucose, C-reactive protein, or anthropometric measures versus placebo.
    primary_references
    Bromelain and cardiovascular risk factors in diabetes: An exploratory randomized, placebo controlled, double blind clinical trial. (2016). https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27412590/ DOI: 10.1007/s11655-016-2521-2
    route
    Oral
    tissue
    Randomized double-blind placebo-controlled trial

    Bromelain: mechanism of action and interactions (2026-09-20) · lines 132–141

    Original AI-assisted source-specific curation with primary-study citations, model, exposure, route, duration, negative findings and limitations preserved. Not publisher full text. · supports · Sixty-eight Chinese adults with diabetes and at least one cardiovascular risk factor · source_derived_draft · unverified_draft

    ## bromelain-diabetes-rct-null In 68 adults with diabetes, 1050 mg/day bromelain for 12 weeks did not significantly improve fibrinogen, lipids, blood pressure, glucose, C-reactive protein, or anthropometric measures versus placebo. Model/species: Sixty-eight Chinese adults with diabetes and at least one cardiovascular risk factor Tissue/system: Randomized double-blind placebo-controlled trial Exposure: Bromelain 1050 mg/day Route: Oral Duration: 12 weeks Limits: Baseline fibrinogen differed despite randomization; the result is a clinical null for the tested dose and population, not proof of no effect in every setting. Primary reference: Bromelain and cardiovascular risk factors in diabetes: An exploratory randomized, placebo controlled, double blind clinical trial. (2016). https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27412590/ DOI: 10.1007/s11655-016-2521-2 Access: Primary PubMed abstract and indexed metadata reviewed. Full-text method details not stated here remain unresolved.
    Complete structured claim and evidence

Availability and dependencies

Each situation shows the normal role first, then what the sources report under a specific condition. A shortfall in the diet, a fault in the machinery, and a low blood reading are kept separate because they are not the same thing.

Cysteine-protease inhibition blocks bromelain-dependent CD25 shedding

Condition: machinery_impairment · E64 is added during bromelain exposure.

Normal role: Active bromelain lowers surface CD25 and increases soluble CD25.

Recorded consequence: The CD25 reduction is prevented.

Scope: In-vitro protease-dependence experiment.

The sources

Every document behind this chapter is preserved word for word. Open one to read it in full with its recorded conflicts marked in place.

  • Bromelain: mechanism of action and interactions (2026-09-20)Original AI-assisted source-specific curation with primary-study citations, model, exposure, route, duration, negative findings and limitations preserved. Not publisher full text. · unverified_draftRead preserved source

Recorded disagreements

Where two sources say different things, both are kept and the difference is explained. You can discuss a disagreement or propose a mechanism that might account for it.

    Open questions in this collection

    Questions the curators could not answer from the sources in front of them, kept here with the reason each one is still open. These are gaps in this collection, not findings or proof that no one has studied them.

      Chapters are assembled from supplied drafts and curated literature summaries. Statements remain unverified against the primary studies, and the ledger is not medical advice.

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      Evidence, AI assistance and curation standards