Glycogen

Where it participates (unsigned role)

1. A labeled cofactor-analogue experiment supported direct participation of the PLP phosphate group in glycogen phosphorylase glucosyl transfer.

   PLP → Rabbit skeletal-muscle glycogen phosphorylase source_derived_draftungraded
   Experimental context and source evidence

   cross_nutrient

   PLP-phosphate chemistry supports glycogen metabolism.

   experimental_model

   Rabbit muscle phosphorylase reconstituted with synthetic cofactor analogue

   exposure

   Synthetic pyridoxal-diphospho-glucose analogue reconstitution

   limitations

   Mechanistic analogue evidence; not a demonstration of muscle glycogen failure in human B6 deficiency.

   nutrient_topic

   Vitamin B6 research collection; topical membership is not evidence of a direct dietary effect. · Vitamin B6

   organism

   Oryctolagus cuniculus

   plain_language

   The phosphate portion of active B6 helps this carbohydrate reaction.

   primary_references

   [b6-phosphorylase-1982] Catalytic mechanism of glycogen phosphorylase: pyridoxal(5')diphospho(1)-alpha-D-glucose as a transition-state analogue. (1982). https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC346497/ DOI: 10.1073/pnas.79.12.3716

   tissue_or_cell_type

   Rabbit skeletal-muscle protein

   Vitamin B6: mechanisms, deficiency and nutrient interactions (2026-09-17) · lines 860–871

   AI-assisted literature curation; primary study URLs and scope retained in the document and extraction. Not publisher full text. · supports · Rabbit muscle phosphorylase reconstituted with synthetic cofactor analogue · source_derived_draft · unverified_draft

   ### b6-met-rabbit-phosphorylase-phosphate A labeled cofactor-analogue experiment supported direct participation of the PLP phosphate group in glycogen phosphorylase glucosyl transfer. Condition category: normal nutrient_topic: Vitamin B6 research collection; topical membership is not evidence of a direct dietary effect. plain_language: The phosphate portion of active B6 helps this carbohydrate reaction. organism: Oryctolagus cuniculus tissue_or_cell_type: Rabbit skeletal-muscle protein experimental_model: Rabbit muscle phosphorylase reconstituted with synthetic cofactor analogue limitations: Mechanistic analogue evidence; not a demonstration of muscle glycogen failure in human B6 deficiency. cross_nutrient: PLP-phosphate chemistry supports glycogen metabolism. exposure: Synthetic pyridoxal-diphospho-glucose analogue reconstitution [b6-phosphorylase-1982] Catalytic mechanism of glycogen phosphorylase: pyridoxal(5')diphospho(1)-alpha-D-glucose as a transition-state analogue. (1982). https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC346497/ DOI: 10.1073/pnas.79.12.3716

   Complete structured claim and evidence

2. Liver glycogen did not significantly decline during three hours of cycling with sucrose ingestion; preservation did not differ from glucose.

   Sucrose → Human hepatic glycogen during prolonged cycling source_derived_draftungraded
   Experimental context and source evidence

   dose

   Sucrose or glucose 1.7 g/min, 102 g/hour, during cycling at 50% peak power

   duration

   3 hours

   evidence_access

   Primary abstract/metadata; unrecovered methods explicitly retained.

   evidence_scope

   literature_reviewed; source-specific curation

   experimental_model

   14 trained cyclists in crossover; four completed additional water reference trial

   exposure_scope

   Exercise fuel, not sedentary beverage exposure

   limitations

   Water reference had four participants, not all 14. Whole-body utilization is not isolated exogenous sucrose oxidation. No demonstrated sucrose advantage for liver glycogen preservation. NCT02110836; Sugar Nutrition UK sponsor listed in trial record.

   nutrient_topic

   Sucrose chapter; direct sucrose observations are distinguished from shared component metabolism. · Sucrose

   organism

   14 trained cyclists in crossover; four completed additional water reference trial

   plain_language

   Liver glycogen did not significantly decline during three hours of cycling with sucrose ingestion; preservation did not differ from glucose.

   primary_references

   Ingestion of glucose or sucrose prevents liver but not muscle glycogen depletion during prolonged endurance-type exercise in trained cyclists. (2015). https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26487008/ DOI: 10.1152/ajpendo.00376.2015

   route

   Oral carbohydrate during exercise

   tissue

   Liver and muscle glycogen by carbon-13 MRS; expired-gas substrate use

   Sucrose: mechanism of action and metabolic impact (2026-09-20) · lines 295–305

   Original AI-assisted source-specific sucrose curation with shared canonical claims retained by identity. Primary-study citations, negative findings, exposure details and limitations preserved. Not publisher full text. · supports · 14 trained cyclists in crossover; four completed additional water reference trial · source_derived_draft · unverified_draft

   ## sucrose-exercise-liver Liver glycogen did not significantly decline during three hours of cycling with sucrose ingestion; preservation did not differ from glucose. Model/species: 14 trained cyclists in crossover; four completed additional water reference trial Tissue: Liver and muscle glycogen by carbon-13 MRS; expired-gas substrate use Exposure: Sucrose or glucose 1.7 g/min, 102 g/hour, during cycling at 50% peak power Route: Oral carbohydrate during exercise Duration: 3 hours Exposure scope: Exercise fuel, not sedentary beverage exposure Limits: Water reference had four participants, not all 14. Whole-body utilization is not isolated exogenous sucrose oxidation. No demonstrated sucrose advantage for liver glycogen preservation. NCT02110836; Sugar Nutrition UK sponsor listed in trial record. Reference: Ingestion of glucose or sucrose prevents liver but not muscle glycogen depletion during prolonged endurance-type exercise in trained cyclists. (2015). https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26487008/ DOI: 10.1152/ajpendo.00376.2015 Access: Primary abstract/metadata; unrecovered methods explicitly retained.

   Complete structured claim and evidence

3. Muscle glycogen declined during prolonged cycling despite sucrose ingestion, as it did with glucose ingestion.

   Sucrose → Human exercise muscle glycogen utilization source_derived_draftungraded
   Experimental context and source evidence

   dose

   Sucrose or glucose 1.7 g/min, 102 g/hour, during cycling at 50% peak power

   duration

   3 hours

   evidence_access

   Primary abstract/metadata; unrecovered methods explicitly retained.

   evidence_scope

   literature_reviewed; source-specific curation

   experimental_model

   14 trained cyclists in crossover; four completed additional water reference trial

   exposure_scope

   Exercise fuel, not sedentary beverage exposure

   limitations

   Water reference had four participants, not all 14. Whole-body utilization is not isolated exogenous sucrose oxidation. No demonstrated sucrose advantage for liver glycogen preservation. NCT02110836; Sugar Nutrition UK sponsor listed in trial record.

   nutrient_topic

   Sucrose chapter; direct sucrose observations are distinguished from shared component metabolism. · Sucrose

   organism

   14 trained cyclists in crossover; four completed additional water reference trial

   plain_language

   Muscle glycogen declined during prolonged cycling despite sucrose ingestion, as it did with glucose ingestion.

   primary_references

   Ingestion of glucose or sucrose prevents liver but not muscle glycogen depletion during prolonged endurance-type exercise in trained cyclists. (2015). https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26487008/ DOI: 10.1152/ajpendo.00376.2015

   route

   Oral carbohydrate during exercise

   tissue

   Liver and muscle glycogen by carbon-13 MRS; expired-gas substrate use

   Sucrose: mechanism of action and metabolic impact (2026-09-20) · lines 307–317

   Original AI-assisted source-specific sucrose curation with shared canonical claims retained by identity. Primary-study citations, negative findings, exposure details and limitations preserved. Not publisher full text. · supports · 14 trained cyclists in crossover; four completed additional water reference trial · source_derived_draft · unverified_draft

   ## sucrose-exercise-muscle Muscle glycogen declined during prolonged cycling despite sucrose ingestion, as it did with glucose ingestion. Model/species: 14 trained cyclists in crossover; four completed additional water reference trial Tissue: Liver and muscle glycogen by carbon-13 MRS; expired-gas substrate use Exposure: Sucrose or glucose 1.7 g/min, 102 g/hour, during cycling at 50% peak power Route: Oral carbohydrate during exercise Duration: 3 hours Exposure scope: Exercise fuel, not sedentary beverage exposure Limits: Water reference had four participants, not all 14. Whole-body utilization is not isolated exogenous sucrose oxidation. No demonstrated sucrose advantage for liver glycogen preservation. NCT02110836; Sugar Nutrition UK sponsor listed in trial record. Reference: Ingestion of glucose or sucrose prevents liver but not muscle glycogen depletion during prolonged endurance-type exercise in trained cyclists. (2015). https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26487008/ DOI: 10.1152/ajpendo.00376.2015 Access: Primary abstract/metadata; unrecovered methods explicitly retained.

   Complete structured claim and evidence

4. Steady-state pool sizes of glucose and metabolic intermediates including adenine nucleotides and end products revealed no differences between adult Haemonchus contortus resistant or susceptible to benzimidazoles, all three strains had similar levels of total lipid, protein and free amino acid and produced a similar sum total of end products, and although the mebendazole-resistant strain showed a diversion of carbon flow to the ethanol-producing pathway and greater cyanide-sensitive aerobic carbon dioxide output, the extent to which these metabolic differences may be related to benzimidazole resistance is not readily apparent.

   Carbohydrate and energy metabolism of the parasite → Resistance to benzimidazole anthelmintics source_derived_draftungraded
   Experimental context and source evidence

   evidence_span

   {"source_cache": "artifacts/mebendazole-research/6427605.abstract.txt", "locator": "Indexed abstract; zero-based, end-exclusive Unicode character offsets", "file_sha256": "4834a68834e7916938d61b08f8dc38fb00085c0b43761372c8ef883da0d8cbf8", "start_char": 0, "end_char": 1809, "text_sha256": "4834a68834e7916938d61b08f8dc38fb00085c0b43761372c8ef883da0d8cbf8"}

   experimental_model

   Biochemical comparison of susceptible, mebendazole-resistant and thiabendazole-resistant Haemonchus contortus in vitro

   exposure

   Steady-state metabolite pools, end products and labelled carbon dioxide over 30 to 60 minute and 18 hour incubations

   limitations

   A broad metabolic survey across matched resistant and susceptible strains. Its own authors state the relationship to resistance is not apparent.

   nutrient_topic

   Mebendazole research collection; topical membership is not evidence of a direct clinical effect, and mebendazole is recorded separately from albendazole, from the benzimidazole class and from its own crystal forms. · Mebendazole

   organism

   Nematode

   plain_language

   Resistant and susceptible worms handle sugar much the same, so metabolism is not where resistance lives.

   primary_references

   [mbz-p6427605] Energy metabolism of adult Haemonchus contortus in vitro: a comparison of benzimidazole-susceptible and -resistant strains. (1984). https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/6427605/ DOI: 10.1016/0166-6851(84)90031-8

   tissue_or_cell_type

   Whole adult worms

   Mebendazole: the tubulin it binds, why that is selective, the crystal form that decides whether any of it works, and the off-target that became an oncology programme (2026-09-22) · lines 342–353

   AI-assisted literature curation; primary study URLs and scope retained in the document and extraction. Not publisher full text. · supports · Biochemical comparison of susceptible, mebendazole-resistant and thiabendazole-resistant Haemonchus contortus in vitro · source_derived_draft · unverified_draft

   ### mbz-metabolism-does-not-explain-resistance Steady-state pool sizes of glucose and metabolic intermediates including adenine nucleotides and end products revealed no differences between adult Haemonchus contortus resistant or susceptible to benzimidazoles, all three strains had similar levels of total lipid, protein and free amino acid and produced a similar sum total of end products, and although the mebendazole-resistant strain showed a diversion of carbon flow to the ethanol-producing pathway and greater cyanide-sensitive aerobic carbon dioxide output, the extent to which these metabolic differences may be related to benzimidazole resistance is not readily apparent. Condition category: normal nutrient_topic: Mebendazole research collection; topical membership is not evidence of a direct clinical effect, and mebendazole is recorded separately from albendazole, from the benzimidazole class and from its own crystal forms. plain_language: Resistant and susceptible worms handle sugar much the same, so metabolism is not where resistance lives. organism: Nematode tissue_or_cell_type: Whole adult worms experimental_model: Biochemical comparison of susceptible, mebendazole-resistant and thiabendazole-resistant Haemonchus contortus in vitro limitations: A broad metabolic survey across matched resistant and susceptible strains. Its own authors state the relationship to resistance is not apparent. exposure: Steady-state metabolite pools, end products and labelled carbon dioxide over 30 to 60 minute and 18 hour incubations evidence_span: {"source_cache": "artifacts/mebendazole-research/6427605.abstract.txt", "locator": "Indexed abstract; zero-based, end-exclusive Unicode character offsets", "file_sha256": "4834a68834e7916938d61b08f8dc38fb00085c0b43761372c8ef883da0d8cbf8", "start_char": 0, "end_char": 1809, "text_sha256": "4834a68834e7916938d61b08f8dc38fb00085c0b43761372c8ef883da0d8cbf8"} [mbz-p6427605] Energy metabolism of adult Haemonchus contortus in vitro: a comparison of benzimidazole-susceptible and -resistant strains. (1984). https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/6427605/ DOI: 10.1016/0166-6851(84)90031-8

   Complete structured claim and evidence

5. Intracellular salicylate concentrations increased within five minutes in both rat fast-twitch and slow-twitch muscle, threonine-172 phosphorylation of the AMP-activated protein kinase alpha subunit increased dose- and time-dependently with increases in both alpha-1 and alpha-2 activity, and these were accompanied by increased 3-O-methyl-D-glucose transport and decreases in ATP, phosphocreatine and glycogen, while phosphorylation of insulin receptor substrate 1, Akt and p70 S6 kinase was unchanged.

   Salicylate / salicylic acid → Insulin-independent glucose transport in skeletal muscle source_derived_draftungraded
   Experimental context and source evidence

   availability_state

   biomarker_context Imported condition classification; unverified.

   evidence_span

   {"source_cache": "artifacts/aspirin-research/25256746.abstract.txt", "locator": "Indexed abstract; zero-based, end-exclusive Unicode character offsets", "file_sha256": "e8cd347665e1de7dc2cadee06da087e2526d4fc11aefef6f7ce15cb33f6234c2", "start_char": 0, "end_char": 1171, "text_sha256": "e8cd347665e1de7dc2cadee06da087e2526d4fc11aefef6f7ce15cb33f6234c2"}

   experimental_model

   Incubation of rat fast-twitch epitrochlearis and slow-twitch soleus muscle with salicylate

   exposure

   Salicylate applied to isolated muscle with glucose transport and nucleotide measurements

   limitations

   Adds the tissue and the energy measurements. Isolated muscle at concentrations set by the incubation buffer, which is not a plasma concentration.

   nutrient_topic

   Aspirin research collection; topical membership is not evidence of a direct clinical effect, and aspirin is recorded separately from salicylate, the metabolite it becomes. · Aspirin / acetylsalicylic acid

   organism

   Rat

   plain_language

   Muscle takes up more glucose without any help from insulin, and its energy stores fall while it happens.

   primary_references

   [asa-p25256746] Salicylate acutely stimulates 5'-AMP-activated protein kinase and insulin-independent glucose transport in rat skeletal muscles. (2014). https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25256746/ DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2014.09.066

   tissue_or_cell_type

   Skeletal muscle

   trigger_kind

   biomarker_context Imported condition classification; unverified.

   Aspirin: the serine it acetylates, the enzyme that acetylation creates, the dose that separates platelet from vessel wall, and the metabolite that is a different drug (2026-09-22) · lines 507–518

   AI-assisted literature curation; primary study URLs and scope retained in the document and extraction. Not publisher full text. · supports · Incubation of rat fast-twitch epitrochlearis and slow-twitch soleus muscle with salicylate · source_derived_draft · unverified_draft

   ### asa-muscle-glucose-uptake Intracellular salicylate concentrations increased within five minutes in both rat fast-twitch and slow-twitch muscle, threonine-172 phosphorylation of the AMP-activated protein kinase alpha subunit increased dose- and time-dependently with increases in both alpha-1 and alpha-2 activity, and these were accompanied by increased 3-O-methyl-D-glucose transport and decreases in ATP, phosphocreatine and glycogen, while phosphorylation of insulin receptor substrate 1, Akt and p70 S6 kinase was unchanged. Condition category: biomarker_context nutrient_topic: Aspirin research collection; topical membership is not evidence of a direct clinical effect, and aspirin is recorded separately from salicylate, the metabolite it becomes. plain_language: Muscle takes up more glucose without any help from insulin, and its energy stores fall while it happens. organism: Rat tissue_or_cell_type: Skeletal muscle experimental_model: Incubation of rat fast-twitch epitrochlearis and slow-twitch soleus muscle with salicylate limitations: Adds the tissue and the energy measurements. Isolated muscle at concentrations set by the incubation buffer, which is not a plasma concentration. exposure: Salicylate applied to isolated muscle with glucose transport and nucleotide measurements evidence_span: {"source_cache": "artifacts/aspirin-research/25256746.abstract.txt", "locator": "Indexed abstract; zero-based, end-exclusive Unicode character offsets", "file_sha256": "e8cd347665e1de7dc2cadee06da087e2526d4fc11aefef6f7ce15cb33f6234c2", "start_char": 0, "end_char": 1171, "text_sha256": "e8cd347665e1de7dc2cadee06da087e2526d4fc11aefef6f7ce15cb33f6234c2"} [asa-p25256746] Salicylate acutely stimulates 5'-AMP-activated protein kinase and insulin-independent glucose transport in rat skeletal muscles. (2014). https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25256746/ DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2014.09.066

   Complete structured claim and evidence